Ancient Egypt


	Ancient Egypt & Sumer

The Iceman- In 1991 a German couple were hiking in the Alps when they saw a frozen body. The police freed the body from the ice and brought it by helicopter with all his possesions to the University of Unnsbruck. They found out that the Iceman died for than 5,000 years ago. They studied his possesions to find out how he lived.

Prehistory- This is the long period of time before people invented systems of writing. Prehistoric people had no government, or cities.

The Bogman- How he died was important evidence. His throat was slit, he had a banged skull, he drowned, he had a happy expression on his face, and his stomach was filled with burnt barley cake. This evidence showed that this man was a priest who was sacraficed to his god. He ate the burned barley cake because he was the one who was chosen to be sacraficed.

Archaeology- This is the study of the ways of life of early people through the examination of their physical remains. ARTIFACTS are objects made by people that help archaeologists study the past. They include tools, weapons, pottery, clothes, and jewlery. Archaeologists dig deep into the earth to find human remains. By studying artifacts archaeologists know how early people developed technology. TECHNOLOGY is the skills and tools people use to meet their basic needs. Archaeologists make detailed maps locating every artifact they find with the help of technology (ex. computers).

Historians- Historians study how people lived in the past. They study artifacts, but they rey more on written evidence like letters and tax records or pictures. They must evaluate the evidence to see if it's reliable. Historians have to explain the evidence, and determine the causes of an event. By knowing our past we can understand what is going on today and what might happen tomorrow. The 1st historians began to write thousands of years ago about well known people. Today historians write about well known people but also about ordinary people like farmers or workers.

Geography- Geography is the study of people, their enviornments, and the resources avaliable to them.

Five themes sum up the impact of geopgraphy on the human story

location- location tells where a place is on the surface of the Earth.
place- Geographers describe places in terms of their physical features and human characteristics.
human enviornment interaction- since pre-historic times, people have interacted with their enviornment. They have shaped and been shaped by the places in which they lived.
movement- The movement of people, goods, and ideas is another key link between geography and history.
region- Geographers divide the world into many different regions. They can be based on physical, political, economic or cultural features.

The Paleolithic Age- This is the old stone age which is the earliest period of human life. In 1959 Mary and Louis Leakey found pieces of bone in an ancient rock in Tanzania. They determined the bone belonged to early humans. In 1974 Donald Johanson found the oldest skeleton in Ethiopia. He named it Lucy after the Beatles song. Scientists believe that the eariest people lived in East Africa. Paleolithic people lived in small hunting and food-gathering bands that had 20 to 30 people. Men hunted, and women gathered berries, grains, nuts, and roots. Paleolithic people were nomads and they moved from place to place and they traveled where food was. People adapted to their enviornment. They made simple tools out of stone bone or wood, and they even made their own laguage. Prehistoric people faced many ice ages, when thick glaciers (sheets of ice) covered Asia, Europe and North America. They invented clothes from animal skin and they were sheltered in caves durig the winters. About 30,000 years ago people left evidence of their religions in the form of art. For example cave paintings are thought to be part of a religous ritual in which hunters ask for help from their gods in their next hunt. Towards the end of the Paleolithic Age some people began to bury the dead with care. This practice suggests that they believe in the afterlife. They believed the afterlife would be similar to living life in this world so they provided the dead with tools.

The Neolithic Age- This is the new stone age or agricultural revolution (people began to farm). People began to plant seeds for food. Food gathering women noticed that when they scattered seeds on the ground new plants would grow the next year. People also learned to tame animals they once hunted. In the Neolithic age people were able to become food producers and populate, which led to more interaction among human communities. About 5,000 years ago a neolithic village stood in the Orkney Islands in the north of Scotland. The village was called Skara Brae. Archaeologists found artifacts that gave us clues to the lives of these early farmers. Skara Brae was the size of 3 classrooms. Every house was the same showing how the poeple were equal. In the village of Skara Brae cooperation was very important. In the village workshop the people made tools including ax heads and arrowheads. They also made clay pots, and jewlery out of bones. They sewed together animal skins to make clothing. They respected the dead by burying them in earthern tombs surrounded by stone walls. The heads of families, probably the older men, formed a council of elders. They made important decisions like when to plant or harvest. During the time of economic scarcity, warfare increased and some men gained power by becoming warriors. The Neolithic people had more personal property than nomads, because they weren't on the move. To farm successfully they had to develop new technologies. They had to protect their crops and measure out enough seeds for the next year. They created the first calenders which helped them know when to plant and harvest.

Civilization- Historians catogorized a civilization into 8 eight features: 1-cities 2- well-organized central governments 3- complex religions 4- job specialization 5- social classes 6- arts and architecture 7- public works 8- writing.

Rise of cities- This was the central feature of civilization. The 1st cities emerged after farmers began to cultivate fertile lands along river valleys and producing surplus, or extra food.

River Valley civilizations- Cities rose in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates river in the Middle East, the Nile River in Egypt, the Indus River in India, and the Yellow River in China. Flood waters in these valleys were good for farming (it renewed the soil, provided water for animals, and was good for transportation).

Civilizations in America- Civilizations didn't rise in river valleys. Two major civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas emerged in the highlands of Mexico and Peru. The cities were religious centers.

Organized Governments- To produce large amounts of food and oversee irrigation projects, new forms of government arose. At 1st the priests had the greatest power. Then warrior kings had the power. The rulers claimed they had the right to rule from the gods. They also had religious power. Government became more complex as rulers issued laws, collected taxes, and organized systems of defense. A BUREAUCRACY is a system of managing government through departments run by appointed officials.

Complex religions- Most ancient people were polytheistic which means they believed in many gods. They worshipped sun gods, river goddesses and other spirits. People built temples and sacrificed animas, crops, or people to their gods.

Skilled Artisans- People began to specialize in certain jobs. Some people were skilled crafts workers. They made pottery, woven goods, tools and weapons. Other jobs included bricklayers, soldiers, merchants, singers, dancers, and storytellers.

Social Ranking- People were ranked according to their jobs. Priest and nobles occupied the top level. Next came wealthy merchants. Then came artisans. Below them stood farmers. Slaves occupied the lowest social level.

Arts, Architecture and Public Works- The arts and architecture expressed the beliefs and values of the people who created them. Skilled workers built and decorated temples and palaces. Public works included irrigation systems, roads, bridges, and city walls.

Writing- A critical new skill developed by the earliest civilizations was the art of writing. PICTOGRAMS are simple drawings that showed the words represented. Archaeologists found masses of ancient writings. SCRIBES were people who learned to read and write. They kept records for priests, rulers, and merchants.

City-State- As rulers conquered territories beyond their cities city-states formed. This was a political unit that includes a city and its surrounding land and villages. Nobles, priests, and rulers ruled over the city states and they ordered the peasants to give them a portion of their crop. (states with no federal government)

Empire- An empire is a group of states or territories controlled by one ruler. It helped create bonds among people by ending war between neighboring communities.

Interaction with nomadic people- most cities lived like nomads. Some people lived in dry grasslands called steppes, where they herded cattle, sheep and other animals. They had to keep on moving because the lands were poor in water and grass. Nomadic cultures were not civilized because they had no interaction with city dwellers.

Enviornmental changes- People of early civilizations depended on their environment for needs. If there were changes in the environment it can destroy civilizations.

Interactions among people- CULTURAL DIFFUSION is the spread of ideas, customs, and technologies from one group of people to another. It occurred through migration, trade, and warfare. As people migrated because of famine they came into contact with other people. Also trade introduced people to new goods or better methods of producing them. Warfare brought changes. Sometimes the people who conquered a town adapted to their life.

The Nile Valley- Farming villages stayed on the narrow piece of land around the Nile.This was called the Black Land. The Red Land was the desert. Farmers grew wheat for food, and flax for clothing. Egypt has been known as the BREADBASKET exporting to foods to other parts of the world. The Nile flooded in the spring providing a layer of rich soil or SILT. People built dikes, reservoirs, and irrigation ditches to store water for the dry seasons. Ancient Egypt had two parts Upper Egypt in the South, and Lower Egypt in the North. Upper Egypt was stretched from the first cataract (waterfall) of the Nile wihin 100 miles toward the Mediterranean. Lower Egypt covered the delta region where the Nile empties into the Meditteranean. A delta is a triangular shape of marshland. In about 3100 B.C. Menes king of Upper Egypt united the 2 regions. The Nile was used to transport goods,and armies. Merchants used the Nile to trade.

The Pyramid Age- Ancient Egypt is divided into 3 periods. The Old kingdom(2,700-2,200 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom ( 2,050 to 1,800 B.C.) and the New Kingdom ( 1,550-1,110 B.C.). Power passed from one DYNASTY or ruling family to another.

Old Kingdom- PHARAOHS were the name given to Egyptian rulers. They were looked at as god. The Pharaohs had the power of owning and ruling the land. Pharaohs hired VIZIERS or chief ministers to take care of the business of government. They were in charge of tax collection, farming, and other matters. During the Old Kingdom Egyptians built pyramids in the Giza which were tombs for eternity. The Egyptians believed in the afterlife so they preserved the dead bodies and provided the with things they would need for their new lives. Pharaohs would begin to build his tomb as soon as he inherited his throne because building a pyramid took a long time.

Middle Kingdom- This was a hard period in which the Nile did not rise regulary. There was a shortage of food. In about 1700 B.C. The Hyksos with their horse drawn chariots dominated Egypt for more than 100 years. There was cultural diffusion. Finally new leaders rose and drove out the Hyksos.

New Kingdom- The empire expanded in this period. Queen Hatshepsut was the daughter of one pharoah and the widow of another. She declared herself the pharoah and she had a fake beard as a sign of authority. She expanded trade in Egypt. Ramses II expanded Egyptian rule to Syria, Palestine and to the Euphrates River. His power slowly declined and invaders like the Assyrians conquered the Nile region.

Egypt and Nubia- Egypt acquired ivory, cattle, gold and slaves from Nubia, and they captured it in the New Kingdom. In about 750 B.C. Nubia dominated Egypt. They ruled Egypt like the Pharaohs. in 650 B.C. the Assyrians drove out the Nubians from Egypt.

Egyptian Religion- Chief gods and goddesses- The sun god was Amon-Re. The Pharoah was looked at just like Amon-Re. Most Egyptians know a lot about Osiris and Isis. Their son Horus took revenge on the wicked god Set, killing his unlce. Osiris ruled the underworld, and the Nile. Osiris weighed a soul's heart against the feather of truth to see if the soul was worthy to live an eternal life. Egyptians believed that the afterlife was like life on Earth. MUMMIFICATION is the preservation of the dead. They removed their organs, and wrapped the body in strips of linen. Many pharoaohs were buried in the desolate Valley of Kings. The treasures that were buried with the tombs were stolen. In 1922, Howard Carter unearthed the tomb of Tutankhamen which was untouched for 3,000 years. In 1380 B.C. a young pharoah, Akhenaton challenged the powerful priests of Amon-Re. He worshipped the Aton, a minor son god. With the help of Queen Nefertiti he tried to sweep away all the other gods in the favor of Aton. He didn't succeed.

Egyptian Society- The society had its own class system. a god and pharaoh stood at the top of Egyptian society. Next came the high priests and priestesses. Next came he nobles. Then came merchants,scribes and artisans. Most Egyptians were farmers and slaves. The men and women spent their days working the soil and the dikes, and in the off season they served the pharoah. During the New Kingdom trade and warfare increased which gave new oppurtunities to artisans and merchants. Egyptian women were allowed to inherit property, enter business deals, buy and sell goods, go to court, and obtain a divorce. Slaves were either prisoners, or people paying off debts.

Lasting Records- The Egyptians developed a form of picture writing. HIEROGLYPHICS were used to keep important records. Scribes were skillied in reading, writing, math, medicine, and engineering. Some scribes served the Pharoah while others kept records of taxes. Scribes developed DEMOTIC, a simple form of writing for everyday use. They also made something like paper from PAPYRUS which was a plant that grew near the Nile. After the New Kingdom fell Egyptians forgot the meaning of hieroglyphics. In the 1800s Jean Champollion managed to decode the Rosetta Stone which is a flat black stone that has the same message carved in 3 different forms of writing: hieroglyphics,demotic, and Greek. Since then scholars were able to decode many records from ancient Egypt.

The Wisdom of the Egyptians-The Egyptians were very smart and they used trial and error to find a solution. Egyptian doctors believed in magic, but they learned a lot about the human body when they mummified bodies. They performed complex surgeries, and they made medicine from castor beans and saffron. Egyptian priest-astronomers studied the heavens, and they were able to make a calender which was similar to our calender. Egyptians used geometry to survey the land, and to calculate the exact size and location pf each block of stoe to be placed in a pyramid or temple.

Literature and the Arts- This tells us about the Egyptian values and attitudes. The Tale of Sinuhe was a folk tale which relates the wandering of Sinuhe an Egyptian official forced to flee into Syria. This story helps us see how Egyptians viewed themselves and the people surrounding them.

Painting and Sculpture- The arts of ancient Egypt include statues, wll paintings in tombs, and carving on temples. They show scenes of trade, farming, family life, or religious ceremonies. Besides pyramids, the Egyptians built great buildings like the temple of Ramses II at Karnak.

The Epic of Gilgamesh- This is one of the oldest pieces of literature in the world. It's filled with supernatural figures and events. It tells us about Sumer, the oldest civilizations of the middle east.

The Fertile Cresent- This is an area of rich soil, and golden wheat fields from the Persian . The first known civilization was known in the 1800s in Mesopotamia. The Tigris and Euphrates river surrounded Mesopotamia. The Fertile cresent in Mesopotamia, Sumer and Egypt attracted farmers and people settled there 5,000 years ago. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flooded and nurtured the soil. Sometimes the rivers rose so high that it washed away mud-brick villages. The rivers had to be controlled to channel water to the fields. Temple priests or royal officials ordered villiagers to build dikes and irrigation ditches to carry water to the fields.

Sumerian Civilization- The Sumerians had few natural resources so they made the most of what they had. Sumerian cities were rectangular and they were surrounded by walls. Inside the city were large avenues. ZIGGURATS were the large pyramid-temples which had a shrine to the cheif god or goddess at the top. Artisans worked on the same street forming a bazaar (shop-lined streets). Trade brought riches to the cities. Archaeologists have found goods from as far away as Egypt and India in Sumerian cities. Sumer had many independent city-states. People turned to powerful warriors as their rulers. The rulers were responsible for maintaining the city walls and irrigation systems. He led armies to war and he enforced the law. He hired scribes to collect taxes and keep records. He also had to be the chief servant of the god. Each Sumerian city-state had a social HIERARCHY or system of ranks. The highest class included the ruling family, leading officials, and high priests. The middle class consisted of merchants, artisans, low priests, and scribes. The lowest class were the farmers, and slaves. In early city-states the wives of rulers had power. They were able to supevise the palace workshops. One woman Ku-Baba became ruler herself. Over time women had less power but they were still allowed to trade, loan and borrow money, and own property.

Sumerian Religion- They were polytheistic which means they worshipped many gods. They believed the gods acted like normal people. Each city-state had its own god or goddess. They had many ceremonies for their gods. The most important ceremony occured at the new year when the king married Inanna the life-giving goddess of love. Sumerians believed in the afterlife. They believed that after a person dies he goes to the underworld.

Schools for Scribes- By 3200 B.C. the Sumerians invented their own writing which was called CUNEIFORM. The writing was used to record grain harvests, myths, prayers, laws, treaties and business contracts. Sumerian scribes had to go to school to acquire their skills. Young scribes(mostly boys) in training learned by copying and reciting. Over the centuries Sumerians developed basic algebra and geometry. Priests studied the skies which helped them make calenders. There were many new people that settled in the Sumerian city-states who adapted to the ways of the city states, but they changed some things. They changed some names of gods and goddesses. Sumerian knowledge passed to the Greeks and the

Romans.

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