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Cities of the Indus Valley (India)
The Indus Valley is located in the Indian subcontinent, or Southeast Asia. A subcontinent is a large landmass that juts out of a continent. India is closed off by two mountain ranges: the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush Mountains. This helped India create a distinct culture.
Three Regions- India has three distinct regions. The Northern Plains are well-watered fertile land that lies below the Himalayas. The Decan Plateau is the triangular shaped landmass that juts into the ocean. It is very dry and nothing can grow there. The coastal plains are the third region. They lie on both sides of the Decan Plateau. Rain falls in this area and the waters were used for trading and fishing.
The Monsoons- A monsoon is a seasonal wind. In the winter, a monsoon brings hot dry air. In the summer, the monsoon brings rain. The monsoon shaped Indian life. If the monsoon comes late, it could cause a drought. Yet if rains are too heavy they could cause floods.
Cultural Diversity- It was very hard to unite India because of the amount of land and different landforms. However, great rulers united them but they still kept their own customs and traditions.
There is no written record of what happened in the ancient valley civilization. The historians based their facts on artifacts.
Well Planned Cities- Harrapa and Mohenjo-Daro were the two main cities in this civilization. Each city had a massive hilltop, which was probably a fortress or a temple. The cities were planned to perfection. The merchants in the marketplace had a uniform set of weights and measurements. They had a well-organized government. They must have known some level of geometry to lay out the cities so precisely.
Farming and Trade- Farmers grew a wide variety of crops. First they cultivated cotton and weaved it into cloth. Other people were merchants. They traded with distant lands. Contact with Sumer may have helped them make a form of writing.
Religious Beliefs- They were polytheistic. Mother gods were the source of creation, and were widely honored. They worshiped animals as well.
The Aryans were a group of people who migrated across Europe and Asia seeking water and pasture for their cattle. Since they built no cities or statues, most of our knowledge about them was derived from he Vedas. The Vedas were a collection of prayers, hymns and other religious teachings. They were passed down to priests by word of mouth for a thousand years. The period from 1500 BC to 500 BC is considered the Vedic age. The Aryans were warlike people who praised their warriors. They traveled from place to place with their cattle, which provided them with food and clothing. Later on in India, they became farmers.
Aryan Society-Aryans divided people by occupation. There were the: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaisyas (farmers), Sudras (slaves). This was their cast system. The casts are social groups into which people are born into and cannot change it. First the warriors were the most respected, then the priests gained power.
Religious Beliefs- They were polytheistic. Important gods were Agni the god of fire, and Varuna, the god of creation. They offered them sacrifices of food and drink. Some religious thinkers eventually moved towards the idea of one spiritual power beyond the gods of the Vedas called Brahmans. Other people believed in Mystics, who are people who devote their lives looking for spiritual truth.
Warriors elected chiefs, called rajas, who were the most skilled war leaders. They led waves of Aryans to India. They learned from people they conquered, and settled in two villages as farmers. They learned other skills from the natives. After time, they moved to the Ganges basin. By 800 BC, they learned how to make iron tools. They carved villages in the rain forests. By 500 BC they developed a written language called Sanskrit. It�s much like European languages because the Aryans were originally from Europe. (This is why they are called Indo-Europeans.)
The Mahabarata is an Indian epic 100,000 verses long. In it we hear of the battles of the rival Aryan tribes as they fought to control the Ganges region. One of the heroes is Juna. He had to face cousins in a big battle. He doesn�t want to fight even though it is a just cause. He confides in Krishna, a god in human form, and gets the courage to fight. The Ramayana is another epic about the hero Rama, and his bride Sita. These epics evolved, like the religion, over thousands of years.
Ancient Indian called their kingdom Zhongguo or the Middle Kingdom. This is partly because China is the most isolated of all the civilizations. They probably believed that they were the sole civilization on earth. Geographic Isolation- to the West were mountains - the Tien Shan, and the Himalayas. In the southeast were jungles that divided them from South-East Asia. In the North was the Gobi desert, and in the East, the Pacific Ocean. However, they still traded with neighboring people. Main Regions- The Empire covered different landforms. The heart of the land was along the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers. They provided irrigation and transportation. River of Sorrows- Civilization probably began in the Yellow River Valley. Government rose to control river through large projects. The Yellow River got its name from the loess, or yellow silt that was left from the river. It was called the river of sorrow because it was constantly overflowing and destroying cities.
In 1600BCE the Shangs gained control of northern China. They dominated the region until 1027BCE. The rulers lived in large palaces and had rich tombs. Under the Shangs, there were different nobles who controlled different clans, or groups of people who claimed a common ancestor. This is like the small city-states of Sumer. They supported artisans, who produced goods, and merchants who transported them. Most of the people were peasants. They lived hard lives. They worked in the fields and repairing dikes etc. The capital was Anyang.
The Ancient Chinese prayed to gods and nature spirits. The chief god was Shang Di. They believed that the king was the link between the gods and the people. The people believed that the prayers of the peasants would not be responded to. They therefore believed that the prayers of the Nobles and Kings were essential to their life.
Yin & Yang- The Chinese believed that the world was balanced on two forces. On one side were Men, Heaven, and Light, and on the other were Women, Earth, and Darkness. These two forces were equal and relied on each other. The well being of the universe was based on the harmony between the two.
Their system of writing was made up of pictographs and ideographs (symbols that represented ideas). The oldest examples of these writings were on oracle bones. The priests wrote questions to the gods on bones. This was a difficult way of writing because there were many symbols to remember. Later on, scholars turned calligraphy, or fine handwriting, into an art. This provided a unity because in all parts of china, they used the same form of writing.
In 1027B.C., the Zhou overthrew the Shang Dynasty and ruled until 256B.C.
The Mandate of Heaven- The Chinese believed that whoever had the mandate of heaven, had the right to rule. The Zhous said that because the last Shang king was so harsh, they passed the mandate of heaven to them. This justified their rebellion.
The Dynasty Cycle- the rise and fall of dynasties. This is the cycle of the history of China. When a dynasty gets old, problems are blamed on them. The people believe that this empire lost the mandate of heaven. A new dynasty rises, claims the mandate of heaven, and fixes the problems left by the old empire. As time goes by, the New Dynasty becomes old, and the cycle begins once again.
A Feudal State- China developed into a feudal stat under the Zhou. Feudalism is the system of government in which nobles owned the land and supported the ruler.
Economic Growth- China�s economy grew. At about 500B.C., knowledge about iron reached China. Because of this, farmers prospered. Lords made irrigation systems which further improved farming. In this time, China began to use money. Because of these improvements, settlements grew and territories expanding.
By 1000B.C., Chinese learned how to make silk from silkworms and cocoons. This later became China�s primary export. During this time, Chinese wrote their first books. Some were about religion, poetry, and also songs.
Hinduism absorbed different beliefs and worships. The people place the offerings before the statues of many gods and goddesses. Like Hinduism, Buddhism includes a wide variety of beliefs.
HINDUISM: UNITY AND DIVERSITY
Hinduism has no founder or sacred text. It grew out of overlapping beliefs of many different groups who settled in India. Because of that it became one of the most complex religions with many gods and goddesses and many kinds of worshiping.
Many Gods or one? � � God is one but we people know him by many names.� Everything in the world was part of an all-powerful spiritual force called Brahman. Brahman is too complex to understand so they worship gods that have a form of Brahman. Brahman is the creator, Vishnu is the preserver and Shivas the destroyer.
The Goal of Life- Every person has an essential self or Atman (soul). The ultimate goal is achieving Moksha or union with Brahman. If you do not achieve this in one lifetime you get reincarnated, or reborn is another bodily form. This allows you to continue working toward Moksha.
Karma and Dharma- In order to come closer to Moksha you must obey the laws of Karma. Karma is all the actions that affect the fate of your next life. People who have good Karma are reborn at a higher level of existence. Dharma is the religious and moral duties of an individual. By obeying Dharma you get you get merit for next life.
Sacred texts- The Bhagavad-Gita tells us many of the ethical ideas central to Hinduism. A key principle of Hinduism is nonviolence. They call this ahimsa. All people who are aspects of Brahman should be respected.
Opposition to the Brahmins- Brahmin priest acquired great power by insisting that only he could bring victory in battle or bring rain in drought. Siddharta Gautama was a reformer who invented Buddhism. His teachings eventually spread across Asia to be a very influential religion.
GUATAMA BUDDHA: THE ENLIGHTENED ONE
His life was filled with legends. All we know is that he was born in 556 B.C.
The search- One day as Guatama rode beyond the palace he saw a sick person an old person and a dead person. This new awareness of human suffering disturbed him. Late that night he left his house never to return again. He set out to discover � The realm of life when it is neither suffering nor death. He went out to ask every Hindu scholar and holy man he got no answer. He stood under a tree meditating and promised not to get up until he has an answer. Then it came to him, he suddenly believed that the cause and cure for suffering and sorrow.
Four Noble Truths � 1) All life is full of suffering, pain and sorrow. 2) The cause of suffering is the desire for things that are really illusions. 3) The only cure for suffering is to overcome desire. 4) The way to overcome desire is to follow the Eightfold Path. The eightfold path is the right way to live life. Next a person had to live a moral life avoiding evil words and actions. The final goal is Nirvana, which is union with the universe and release from the cycle of rebirth.
Shared traditions- Buddhism grew out of Vedic religious traditions and accepted Dharma, Karma and Moksha. Buddhism still differed from Hinduism in several ways. The Buddha rejected the priests and the existence of many gods. They urged each individual to seek enlightenment they also rejected the caste system.
The Buddha set up monasteries for the nonbelievers. Some monasteries grew into major centers of learning. The Buddha died at 80 years old.
Sacred Text- after Buddha�s death they gathered all of his teachings into a sacred text called the Tripitaka.
Two schools- Theravada Buddhism covered Buddha�s original teachings. The Mahayana Buddhism was easier for ordinary people to follow. People turned to the gods for help in solving daily problems and achieving salvation.
According to Hindu teachings a ruler had duties like everyone else. His job was to establish peace and order by enforcing laws. Achieving these goals was difficult.
They ruled from 321 B.C. to 185 B.C. The Maurya dynasty ruled over a vast united Empire.
Record of the Greek ambassador- A Greek ambassador to the Maurya court described the capital at Palipatuta the largest and the most prosperous city in the world at that time. Chandragupta maintained order through a well-organized bureaucracy. His rule was effective yet harsh. He had people tasting his food to make sure it wasn�t poisoned. He had royal officials regulating trade. He had other officials collecting taxes. He also had policemen reporting on crime, corruption and dissent within the empire.
The �Philosopher King�- Asoka was in power during the most honored Maurya Empire. Asoka fought a long bloody war to conquer the Deccan Region. Asoka converted to Buddhism rejected violence and resolved to rule by moral example. Asoka became a vegetarian and limited Hindu animal sacrifices. He sent missionaries all throughout Asia to spread Buddhism. He preached tolerance for other religions. Asoka rule brought peace and prosperity. After his death The Maurya Empire declined in 185 B.C.
During India�s long history they have always been united. In ancient times the subcontinent was home to many different people and cultures. The Aryan north share a fierce local rivalry kept it divided. However in the south other cultures thrived. Foreign invaders frequently came through the North. The divided Northern Kingdoms could not often resist conquers. Despite invasions and war India developed into a center of world trade.
Deccan was divided into many kingdoms. Each had its own capital with temples. Deccan people had many different languages and traditions. Women had high status and economic power. Sometimes, parts of India were ruled by Queens. Deccan rulers tolerate all religions.
They ruled from AD 320- 550. They organized a strong central government. That ensured peace and prosperity.
Peace and Prosperity-The power was left in the hands of City-Government elected by merchants and artisans. Trade and farming flourished Artisans produced cotton-cloth, pottery and metal. This led to great art and learning.
Advances in Learning:
They did not only teach religion, they taught Math, Medicine, physics, and language/literature. The advances in Math devised the simple system of writing numbers. The physicians made medicine to treat illnesses.
Architecture- The temples were magnificent. The artisans worked on it and designed it beautifully.
Magnificent Carving- The temples were covered with Carvings of Gods and goddesses.
Literature- They wrote many poems. They collected and recorded many folktales.
COMPLEX CASTE SYSTEM
In Gupta times most of the people were peasants. The village insured their stability. The caste system and the family were two other important pillars of life. By Gupta times many more sub-castes evolved from the original four. They evolved from new occupations, religions, and trades. There are now more than hundreds of castes.
Complex Rules- Hindus believe that people of other castes are from other species. This governed all aspects of life, where they lived, ate, how they earned a living. The �Untouchables� were those of the lowest castes. They lived a harsh life living apart from all others so as not to contaminate them.
Effects- The caste system ensured stability. Although they could not change their position in this life they could change their karma in the next life. The caste system gave people a sense of identity since within each caste everyone had a job. Although separated each caste depended on other castes for basic needs.
VILLAGE LIFE
The village was the center of life. Each village paid taxes. Each village had a council to make decisions.
FAMILY LIFE
The rich, many generations sharing a home, achieved joint family life, since the poor people usually did not survive long enough. The Indian family was patriarchal, the oldest man heading the household. Property belonged to the whole family. Children learned from early ages what was expected of them as adults.
Women- Women at first enjoyed freedom that they lost by late Gupta times. By then they had to cover themselves from head to foot. Some widows were expected to burn to death in their husband�s funeral fire.
THE WISDOM OF CONFUCIUS
Confucius believed that the government should set a good example for the people, as well as governing.
The Analects- Confucius never wrote down his teachings, however after his death, his students compiled his teaching into The Analects. He was concerned with worldly goals like social order and good government.
The 5 Relationships- Confucius believed that 5 relationships are essential to life. Superiors should set good examples, and inferiors should show respect. Confucius believed in filial pity, or respect for parents.
Government- He believed that people were essentially good. He also puts great faith in education for men.
Although Confucianism didn�t become a religion, many rulers based their ideas on Confucianism.
THE HARSH IDEAS OF LEGALISM
Hanfeizi, another Chinese philosopher, believed that the nature of man is evil. He said that greed is the main reason for problems. He said that the only way to achieve control over an empire is by passing strict laws.
DAOISM: THE UNSPOKEN WAY
They had no interest in bringing order to human affairs; they were more concerned with harmony in nature. Laozi was said to be the founder of Daoism, however there is no proof that he even lived. They despise the world of conflict. Daoism teaches to stay away from problems. They believed that government is unnatural, and therefore is the cause of many problems. Daoism evolved into a religion. (Daoist priests experimented with alchemy, or the transformation of metals into gold.)
BUDDAHISM IN CHINA
Missionaries and merchants brought Buddhism to China, from India. It took some time for the people to believe in them. However, Buddhism eventually became popular. It offered the Chinese an escape from suffering. Until now, they hadn�t had a concept of eternal happiness. It presented Buddha as a compassionate and merciful god.
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