Biology Review - First Semester

Gregor Mendel-Father of genetics, conducted breeding experiments with pea plants, university education, was a monk

1) Dominant- A trait which expresses itself if even one dose of the gene is present

2) Recessive- A trait which expresses itself only if two dose of the gene is present

1) Somatic Cells(Body cells)- Cells which are not directly involved in reproduction

2) Gametes(sex cells; sperm & egg)- Cells which are directly involved in reproduction

F2 3:1, Tall: Short, 75% Tall 25% Short (25% Homozygous Tall~TT,50% Heterozygous Tall~Tt, 25% Homozygous Short~tt)

When F1 hybrids (heterozygous) are crossed with each other that that did not appear in the F1 appears in 1/4 of the F2 (3/4 are Tall 1/4 are Short; all the F1 where Tall)

When two traits are studied at the same time, the inheritance of one trait is independent of the second trait Exception-When genes for different traits are found on the same chromosome they tend to be inherited together

Incomplete Dominance-AKA Blending Inheritance-The hybrid does not resemble either parent but instead is a blend of parental traits

There are 3 or more different genes in the population but any individual has only 2 genes/trait

Antigen- A foreign substance which stimulates the formation of antibodies(Red blood cells)

Antibodies- A substance formed in response to an antigen(plasma-liquid part of blood)

Agglutination Reaction-Caused by transfusions when the antibodies attack the transfused blood

Antibodies from the mother attack the fetus if any blood from the baby leaked into the mother, the second Fetus with Positive blood will be attacked if blood is leaked from the second fetus, the mother�s body remembers the foreign RH and antibodies are already pre-created from first fetus, the second fetus may be injured or killed by the antibodies. After the first Baby is born a vaccine may be created to prevent the creation of antibodies that may injure or kill the second fetus.

106 Males:100 Females-The Y chromosome is smaller and lighter in weight then the X chromosome. Y sperm can swim slightly faster then the X sperm so more Y sperm will reach the egg. There is a somewhat better chance that the Y sperm will fertilize the egg.

2) Identical-One egg is fertilized by one sperm then the zygote divides and each zygote matures by itself.

2)XXY-Male-47 chromosomes per somatic cell; 44 autosomes 3 sex chromosomes AKA Klinefelter�s Syndrome-sexually immature Male

3)XXX-Female-47 chromosomes per somatic cell; 44 autosomes 3 sex chromosomes AKA Super Females

Abnormal Gamete Formation
Non-Disjunction- Failure of chromosome pairs to separate during Gamete formation
(Same diagram as previous page until the last stage)

Autosomal Non-Disjunction

Down�s Syndrome AKA Trisomy 21 & Mongolism

(incorrectly called Mongolism because of �oriental� appearance)

47 Chromosomes/ Somatic Cell-45 Autosomes 2 Sex Chromosomes

Mental retardation, Short, Overweight, Round face, �Oriental� appearance, Poor muscular coordination, Tip of the tongue protrudes, Shortened life span, Simian Crease -Line crease across the length of both hands. Called Trisomy 21 because there are three 21^st Chromosomes instead of the normal pair (2)

Amniocentesis-A technique in which amniotic fluid and embryonic cells are retrieved and analyzed for genetic defects

Cells are cultured and examined microscopically to find the point of cell division

A photo of the chromosomes is taken which is called a Karyotype-A photo of the chromosomes arranged in pairs.

Sex Linkage(sex linked traits)

The genes for these traits are found only on the X chromosome, There are NO genes for this trait on the Y chromosome

Color-blindness (C-Normal color vision c-color blindness)

Females-Has XX therefore 2 genes Males-Has XY therefore 1 gene (on the X chromosome)

CC-Normal Color Vision CY-Normal Color Vision

Cc-Carrier(Normal color vision but has the Cannot be a carrier

gene to pass on)

cc-Color-blind cY-Color-blind

Gametes	C	c	Mother
C	CC-Normal Color Vision	Cc-Carrier	-Females
Y	CY-Normal Color Vision	cY-Color-blind	-Males
Father

Hemophilia-A condition in which the blood doesn�t clot and continues to bleed caused by the body not synthesizing factor VIII(8)-a step in the process of blood clotting

H-Normal Clotting h-Hemophilia

Female Male

HH-Normal HY-Normal

Hh-Carrier

hh-Hemophilia hY-Hemophilia

There have been virtually no cases(but still some) of Hemophilia in a Female because it is a rare gene and most people die at an early age from it

Genetics and Environment

1)Green Color in Plants-(C-Chlorophyl production c-No chlorophyl production)

CC-Green

Cc-Green

cc-White(dead)

2)Baldness in Humans-(B-Bald b-Hair)

Female Genotype Male A minimal level of testosterone

Hair BB Bald is needed to activate the dominant

Hair Bb Bald gene for baldness in Humans

Hair bb Hair

3)Intelligence

Twin Studies-Identical twins raised apart Vs. Fraternal twins raised together

Experiment proved that intelligence depended on genes but could be expressed differently depending on their environment

Cells

Van Leeuwenhoek- Inventor of the microscope

Hooke-Examined cork cells and discovered rows of empty compartments (dead plant cells)

Schleiden- Botanist-examined plant cells under a microscope

Schwann- Zoologist-examined animal cells under a microscope

Schleiden and Schwann compared notes and created the Cell Theory

Cell Theory

1) Cells are the basic units of structure of all living things

2) Cells are the basic units of function of all living things

Virchow-First to observe cell division; added part 3 to the Cell Theory

3) All cells arise from pre-existing cells

~Problem~Where did the first cell come from?-Unknown

Exceptions to the Cell Theory

1)Virus-A packet of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein shell and is a parasite

Parasite-Lives on or in another organism(host) cannot reproduce except in or on a host

2)Slime Mold-Has and doesn�t have cell alternatively, when without cells cell nuclei float in the mold

Organelles AKA Sub-Units of Cells

1) Nucleus- Controls the cells activities

2) Ribosome- Site of protein synthesis

3) Lysosome- Breaks down some cellular wastes

4) Mitochondria- Powerhouse of the cell, energy release

5) Endoplasmic Reticulum- Canals used for intercellular transport

6) Cell Wall- Found only in plant cells-Protection, outer boundary of plant cells, maintains the shape of the cell

7) Vacuoles- store various substances

8)Cell Membrane- Outer boundary of animal cells-Regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell (semi-permeable)

9) Cytoplasm- Gel like substance composed mostly of water, site of many chemical reactions

10) Nuclear Membrane- Outer boundary of the nucleus , regulates movement of substances into and out of the cell

11) Golgi Bodies- Package and transport various cell secreations

12) Chromosomes- Function of heredity-collection of genes

13) Genes- individual units of heredity

14) Nucleolus- Functions in protein synthesis

15) Centriole (Centrosome)- In animal cells only function in cell division

16) Chloroplast-Found in plant cells only-contains chlorophyl used in photosynthesis

Levels of Organization

1) Cells- Most basic part of a body

2) Tissues- groups of cells specialized for a particular purpose

3) Organs- groups of different tissues working together for a specific function

4) Organ System- group of organs specialized for a specific function

Life Functions

1) Respiration (energy)

2)Nutrition-ingestion, digestion, absorption, egestion (elimination)

3)Excretion

4)Transport (blood, air)

5) Regulation (reactions, neural pathways, hormones)

6) Reproduction

7)Growth

8)Synthesis

9)Locomotion

Homeostasis- The tendency of an organism to maintain a constant internal environment

Scientific Method

1) State the problem

2) Form a hypothesis

3) Conduct on experiment-

A) Independent variable(variable)

B) Dependent Variable (Variables in the variable)

C) Control

4) Collect data

5) Analyze the data

6) Conclusion

7) Repeat the experiment

The Compound Microscope-Sequence of Use

1) Low Power (all the way up)

A) Course adjustment

B) Fine Adjustment

2) High Power-Fine adjustment only

Centi-/100^th a meter Mili-/1000^th a meter

Micrometer= .001mm=1,000,000^th a meter =FLow Power=100x normal size High Power=430x normal size

Major Elements in life; C(Carbon),O(Oxygen), N(Nitrogen), H(Hydrogen), S(Sulfur), P(Phosphorus)

Trace Elements in life; K(Potassium), Fe(Iron), Na(Sodium), Ca(Calcium), Zn(Zinc), Mg(Magnesium), Cu(Copper), Br(Bromine), Cl(Chlorine), F (Fluorine), Mn(Manganese), Co(Cobalt), Se(Selenium), I(Iodine)

A) H₂O-Main component of cytoplasm-necessary for most chemical reactions, very stable

C) Bases-(Alkalis)-Substances that give off (OH)^- (AKA Hydroxide/Hydroxyl) in a solution

Surrounding atoms are �shells� of electrons this first shell has 2 electrons the second 8 and the third usually has 8. All atoms like to have their outer shell completely filled

Example of a Covalent Bond *=Electrons of Cl (Chlorine) �=Electron of C(Carbon)

The electrons from the Carbon in sharing or alternating with those of the Chlorine filling all 5 of the atom�s outer shell�s simultaneously.

A) Carbohydrates-All contain C,H,O; The H:O ration is always 2:1 (Every Oxygen has 2 Hydrogens)

B) Lipids-All contain C,H,O; The H;O ratio is always >2:1 but not constant (evey Oxygen has more than 2 Hydrogens)

1) Sugars-Properties-Sweet, Excellent source off immediate energy, Soluble in H₂O, Burn

A) Monosaccharides-Glucose, Fructose, Galactose-Glucose most common, all 3 have the same Emperic Formula C₆H₁₂O₆

Emperic Formula-The number of atoms in each element found in a single molecule of a substance

B)Disaccharides-Lactose, Sucrose, Maltose-Maltose most common, all tree have the smae emperic formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ (Maltose =2 Glucose) combines 2 Glucose molecules but loses a water molecule

Dehydration Synthesis- A process in which two or more smaller molecules are combined to form a larger molecule by the removal of H₂O

Hydrolysis- A process in which a large molecule is broken down into smaller molecules by the addition of H₂O

2) Starches-Properties-(AKA Polysaccharide)-Excellent source of stored energy, insoluble in H₂O, Polymer

Properties- insoluble in H₂O, excellent source of stored energy, greasy, burn, leaves a translucent stain on paper

The four molecules together form a lipid trough a Dehydration Synthesis which creates 3 water molecules

Saturated Fats-In the hydrocarbon chain there are only single bonds, usually solid t room temperature, usually found in animals

Unsaturated Fats-There is at least one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain, usually liquid at room temperature, usually found in plants

Properties-Excellent source of energy (which is hardly ever used) burn, polymers-chains of Amino Acids-There are 20 different natural Amino Acids

Together these Amino Acids are a Protein called Glycylalanine and a molecule of H₂O

Proteins are also known as Polypeptides because of their usually many Peptide Bond

Glycylalanine is an example of a Dipeptide because of its Peptide Bond (This bond is like every other covalent bond except it has a special name)

1) A 5 Carbon Sugar (Has 5 Carbons and 5 sides) is represented with pentagon shape

2) Some Enzymes are composed of Amino Acids and a Non-Protein Segment AKA Co-Enzyme (Usually a Vitamin)

Lactase Lactose Enzymes and their substrates are represented in geometric shapes

- At low temperatures Enzyme activity decreases and would eventually stop at 0�C

- If the temperature is raised back to 37�C Enzyme activity resumes its former levels

- At temperatures above 37�C Enzyme activity drops rapidly an eventually stops

Enzyme Denaturation- Permanent destruction of Enzyme molecule is at 45�-50�C

After 10,000 Enzyme Substrate Complexes are created there are no more available Enzymes for the Substrates to combine with (same with diagram below)

Ecology-Study of the environment (interactions between organisms and their environment)

Abiotic Factors(Non-Living)- Natural disasters, Pollution/Air quality, Temperature, Substratum (terrain), Water, Light, Minerals (in the substratum)

Animals-1) Herbivore-Plant eater 2)Carnivore-Meat eater 3)Omnivore-Meat and plant eater

Grass �> Mice �> Snake �> Hawk (X�>Y- X is going into Y, X�s energy is going into Y)

Decomposers-Bacteria and Fungi-Decompose animal carcases and excretions into fertilizers, all food webs will include Decomposers (even if not shown)

You will part of the energy you eat because you don�t have the enzymes to digest it. Each food web starts with 1) Producers(green plants) The food web then continues with 2)Consumers a) Primary(herbivores) b) Secondary Consumers (carnivores) 3) Decomposers -decomposers will never appear on the pyramid of energy

Pyramid of Numbers-The higher up on the pyramid the less of each organism there are

Termites and there intestinal Bacteria-bacteria gets food from the wood and digests the wood for the termite to have food

Clownfish and Anemone-Clownfish (Immune to anemone poison)is protected by the Anemone and lures fish (that aren�t immune to the Anemone poison)to the Anemone which then kills and eats them

Cattle/Rhinos and Cattle egrets- Cattle egrets sit on the Rhino(or Cattle)�s back and warns the Rhino of danger with its better eyesight, by being on the Rhino�s back it gets locomotion and is protected from other animals

Crocodile and Crocodile bird- Crocodile gets its teeth cleaned by the Crocodile bird, Crocodile bird gets food

Whale and Barnacle-Barnacle attaches to the whale and eats whatever comes to it as the whale swims trough the water

Limited Resources-Factors which limit the population of a species; food, water, shelter, oxygen, light, minerals

Carrying Capacity-Maximum number of organisms that can be supported in a given area

1) Nitrogen Cycle: N₂ (Nitrogen)in the air�>Plants�>Animals�>Decomposers --> N₂

Water in the atmosphere �>Condensation(precipitation)�>Water on the ground�>Evaporates (to atmosphere)

A)Negative-1)Pollution, 2)Extinction of Species-Hunting, Habitat destruction 3)Overpopulation 4)Introduction of Non-Native (Invasive)Species-Purple Loosestrife; a vine with no natural predators in North America which got out of control and multiplied in the habitat of other plant species in the same area causing them to be endangered, Asian Longhorn Beatle; a beatle with no natural predators in North America that is destroying many trees, Rabbits in Australia; Rabbits got loose in Australia and with no natural predators there multiplied and destroyed many plants 5) Chemical Control-DDT; A chemical used as a pesticide that went trough the food chain and caused Bald Eagles eggs to be brittle, these eggs were often broken because they were so brittle and the Bald Eagle population became endangered. 6) Global Warming (?)-This may or may not be because of Humans 7)Destruction of Ozone Layer 8) Acid Rain-caused by burning coal which releases SO₂ (Sulfur Dioxide) that mixes with water vapor

B)Positive Aspects-1)Biological Control-Purple Loosestrife; Brought a certain beetle to North America that eats only purple loosestrife in order to control the Purple Loosestrife population, Rabbits in Australia; Scientists infected thousands of rabbits with a species specific fatal virus released these rabbits in Australia to bring the rabbit population down by having the virus spread and kill the rabbits. 2)Population Control 3)Pollution Control 4) Breeding Programs for Endangered Species 5) Habitat Protection 6) Reforestation

A)Fossils-Remains or traces of once living organisms, at least 10,000 years old (last ice age), Last 10,000 years are considered recent time

c) Petrified Remains(Minerilization)-In a body of water sediment covers hard remains (bones, claws, shells) pressure hardens sediment into sedimentary rock(which is porous) water combines with chemicals in the rock to foram a weak acid. This acid dissolves the remains. Sometimes, minerals which are carried in with the water come out of the solution and crystalizes. These minerals resemble the remains.

B)Comparative Anatomy-Comparison of structure to establish a degree of relationship and common ancestry

Vestigial Structures-Structures that had a use ancestrally but are no longer functional

C)Comparative Embryology-Comparison of Embryos to establish a degree of relationship and common ancestry

Early Human Embryology-Gill Slits, Webbed toes and fingers, Tail, 2 chambered heart�>3�>4

D) Comparative Biochemistry-Comparison of molecules to establish a degree of relationship and common ancestry

-Sheep Thyroxin-Used to treat Human thyroxin deficiency, defective thyroid gland

E) Geographic Isolation(Divergent evolution, Adaptive Radiation)-Natural Barriers-Geographic features which separate populations

1)Darwin�s Finches in the Galapagos Islands-There were slight variations in beak size and shape among ancestral Finches. Some beaks were better suited (adapted) to one set of environmental conditions, while different beaks were better adapted to other environmental conditions. Over time, small initial differences became more pronounced and unified on individual islands. Geographic isolation would prevent different kinds from mating with each other.

2)Marsupials in Australia-Placentals or more likely to survive when reproducing then marsupials. When placentals and marsupials compete for the same niche the placentals win and the marsupials often become extinct. The placentals never reached Australia because of Continental Drift and marsupials are mostly the only native mammals on Australia.

Continental Drift-The Earth once only had a single landmass. This landmass split into 2 Super Continents-1)North America, Europe, Asia, Greenland 2) South America, Africa, India, Australia, Antarctica. Placentals originated on South America and spread to the other continents except Australia when it had drifted away from the greater landmass.

Weismann-disproved acquired characteristics 1870's-He cut off the tales of P₁and according Lamarck the offspring should have been born without tails. However, the F₁ had tails. Weismann redid this experiment many times to disprove acquired characteristics.

4) These organisms with the best variations(adaptations) tend to survive(Survival of the Fittest)

5) The survivors tend to reproduce and pass on the favorable traits to their offspring

6) Over time, the favorable adaptation will become part of the entire population or species

1)Gradualism-Evolution proceeds at a slow steady pace(represented by a strait raising line on a graph)

2)Punctualism-Evolution happens in brief intense bursts with long periods of inactivity in between (represented by a stepped line on a graph)

Pepper Moth-Originally mostly light colored to camouflage with the light colored trees, dark colored moths existed in the population but were mostly eaten by predators because of their inability to hide. Pollution from factories went on the trees making them darker colored allowing the dark colored moths to camouflage and the lighter colored moths, unable to hide from predators, decreased while the dark colored ones increased. Pollution control laws lessened the pollution on the trees making them darker then original but not as dark as before the pollution reduction laws. The greyish pepper moths then became the majority of the population because both lighter and darker colored moths were unable to camouflage.

DDT-During WWII DDT was sprayed to stop the spread of disease and kill flies. Some flies were naturally resistant to DDT and didn�t get killed while most of the non-resistant ones did. Resistant flies survived and passed the resistant gene to future generation populating most of the fly population with DDT-resistant flies.

Redi-Made an experiment to disprove this belief. He had 3 jars with meat in each, 1 jar closed, 1 jar opened, 1 jar with a mesh cap. (That didn�t allow flies to enter but allowed the smell to leave) The flies were all over the meat in the jar without a cap, no flies were on the meat in the jar with a cap, flies were on the mesh cap but not on the meat of in the third jar. This was a good experiment however, people wanted to keep believing in spontaneous generation and said the meat had to be in direct contact with the air in order for it to work, and disregarded the experiment.

Pasteur-Disproved spontaneous generation by making a goose-necked flask that allowed air to flow freely and didn�t allow microorganisms to reach the broth in the flask.

2) The primitive atmosphere consisted of Water Vapor, H₂ (Hydrogen), CH₄ (Methane), NH₃ (Ammonia)

4) The Earth started to cool forming a crust, water vapor condensed resulting in long periods of rain(centuries long) This rain filled depressions in the Earth�s crust forming the primitive oceans. Gases from the atmosphere dissolved in these oceans under the influence of U-V Radiation and electrical energy, simple organic molecules were formed (monosaccharides, simple amino acids.) Over time small organic molecules combined to form larger. More complex organic compounds-Aggregates. At some point in time aggregates were able to replicate-DNA replicates-Life. First organic life forms were heterotrophs, autotrophs evolved later. First organisms were Anaerobes- Do not require Oxygen to Survive, Aerobes-Do require oxygen to survive evolved later. The Tetnas Bacteria are anaerobic.

Grey and Miller-Built a chamber into which they put H₂, CH₄, NH₃, and Water. They gently heated this mixture and circulated it past an electric shock-they found simple organic molecules after a few weeks and later found aggregates

Gametes	HbA	HbS
HbA	Normal	Sickle Cell Trait
HbS	Sickle Cell Trait	Sickle Cell Anemia

Contents:

Back to Top

Back to Top

Back to Top

Back to Top

Back to Top

� Review Sheets Central

www.reviewsheetscentral.com