American History - Fall Semester Review

Terms and Concepts

-mercantilism � an economic system in which nations seek to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by establishing a favorable balance of trade (more export than import)

-French and Indian War � 1754-63 also known as the Seven Years� War, French and Indians fought on the same side against GB and the colonies. The war was the inevitable result of colonial expansion when colonial settlers were moving into the Ohio Valley and the French wanted to protect their fur trade in that region. George Washington then led an army and attacked a French outpost but lost�returned to Virginia and was a hero. Then in 1756 GB declared war on France, GB won the war but it was an expensive and GB was in debt.

-Navigation Acts � passed btwn 1651 and 1673, All goods had to stop in England to check that � the crew was British [later the quota was raised to �, and the ships became taxed as well]. Foreign trading was banned between colonial ports, and colonists weren�t allowed to serve on competitors� ships. Later on lists of enumerated goods [goods that could only be sold to England] were made. The purpose was to make England benefit from both colonial imports and exports. But, officials soon found out that enforcing the laws was much easier than passing them, b/c there was lots of smuggling.

-Salutary neglect � although GB regulated trade and other things within the colonies, it interfered in colonial affairs as little as possible. GB didn�t pay so much attention to the colonies and let them run themselves.

-Treaty of Paris � after France surrendered and lost the French and India War it states that France was to lose all North American land claims.

-Proclamation Line of 1763 � which was a line that the colonists couldn�t settle past, to prevent further conflicts = stopped expansion and convinced the colonists that GB didn�t care about them.

-Sugar Act � (1764) existing customs regulations were revised, new duties were placed on some foreign imports, and stronger measures were taken against smuggling. Seems just like Navigation Acts, which were accepted by the colonists, but this time the measures were explicitly designed to raise revenue [as opposed to channeling trade through Britain].

-Quartering Act � (1765) required a raise in colonial taxes to provide for housing of soldiers.

-Currency Act � (1764) colonial paper $ was banned for trade [by 1769 it was decided col. $ would have no value at all]. This was passed b/c British officials felt they were being ripped off b/c colonial $ had such erratic values, but it greatly irritated colonial merchants, who lost out b/c their money was made useless.

-Stamp Act � (1765) It affected almost every colonist b/c it required tax stamps on all printed materials, and it was the worst on merchants and the elite [who used more paper]. The act also asked that stamps be paid w/sterling and that violators be tried in vice-admiralty courts, which alarmed colonists. Their privacy was violated b/c now their private letters and documents were screened before they were stamped.

-Writs of Assistance � officers allowed to board and inspect ships and confiscate goods not taxed without a valid warrant or probable cause

-Stamp Act Congress � organized by merchants and supported by the Sons of Liberty, they were a group that met in New York to draft the Stamp Act Resolves

-Declaratory Act � Parliament had the rights to tax the colonies [we can tax you if we want to], which was pretty much ignored in the midst of the celebrations of the Stamp Act�s repeal.

-Sons of Liberty � founder Samuel Adams, secret resistance group of laborers and merchants

-Townshend Acts � (1767) were on trade goods [paper, glass, tea, etc.] but were different from the Navigation acts b/c they (1) applied to items imported from Britain and (2) were designed to raise money to pay for the salaries of royal officials. This was just another reason for the colonies to feel angry and resentful.

-Boston Massacre � there was competition for jobs, soldiers vs. colonists and that led to increased tension. On March 5, 1770 a fight over jobs and a mob gathered outside of GB headquarters. A shot was fired leaving Crispus Attucks + 4 other left dead. These deaths caused uproar and Sam Adams named it Boston Massacre for propaganda purposes. This left many colonists angry even though it had been the mob�s fault that shots were fired to begin with.

-Committee of Correspondence � [led by Samuel Adams] when the GB began implementing the part of the Townshend Act to the governors who were being paid from the customs revenues. This angered the colonists and in response the Committee of Correspondence was created in Boston to gather publicity for the patriot cause

-Tea Act � problem: British East India Company had a monopoly on tea exports and was greatly affected by colonial boycotts on tea. This resulted in them losing a lot of money so to solve this problem the Tea Act was devised by Lord North. It allowed the British East India Company to sell tea w/o tax but colonial companies couldn�t do that, they had to sell taxed tea. This gave the British East India Company an advantage b/c they were selling tax free and cheaper tea. But now colonial merchants were out of the tea trade and that led to the colonies protesting violently to the Tea Act.

-Boston Tea Party � group of Boston rebels disguised as Indians�dumped 15,000 pounds of GB tea into Boston Harbor

-Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) � King George was angry and wanted those responsible to be punished. So Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts which (1) shut down Boston Harbor b/c colonists refused to pay for damaged tea (2) Quartering Act � authorized GB commanders to house soldiers in private homes (3) General Thomas Gage � commander and chief of GB army = new govt. of Mass. (4) General Gage placed Boston under martial law � rule imposed by military forces

-1^st and 2^nd Continental Congress � (1) colonists assembled 1^ST Continental Congress, were united. Sept 1774 � 56 delegated met in Phili +drew up declaration of colonial rights, if GB used force colonists would fight back, agreed to meet in May 1775 if demands not met. (2) May 1775, met to discuss the violence and form a plan b/c war was now imminent. Results: Continental Army formed led by Gen. Washington, they acted like an independent govt., authorized printing paper money, paid troops, organized committee 2 deal w/foreign nations

-�Common Sense� � by Thomas Paine, an anonymous 47-page essay that attacked King G3 +monarchy and claimed that the monarchy was responsible for tyranny. Also said it was time to proclaim independence and independence will only bring the colonies a better society and a better life. 50,000 copies were sold.

-Loyalists � opposed independence +remained loyal to the king, many served as judges, councilors, govts of the king, thought GB was going to win war, thought King would protect their rights more effectively than colonial govt., many blacks were Loyalists b/c they received a promise of freedom for whoever fought for the king, Indians supported GB b/c they viewed colonies as bigger threat to their land.

-Patriots � ppl who saw economic opportunity in an independent America, cause embraced farmers, merchants, elected officials, landowners, etc�, made up nearly half of population, Quakers supported Patriots� didn�t fight b/c they didn�t believe in war, Blacks fought for freedom.

-Equality clause � �all men are created equal� � free citizens were political equals but some ppl were still not equal like women, Indians, +slaves

-Natural clause � unalienable rights � natural rights�life, liberty, +the pursuit of happiness.

-Right of revolution � concepts of John Locke, that an oppressed ppl have the right to resist tyranny and revolt

Important People

-Patrick Henry � was a prominent figure in the Revolution, known and remembered primarily for his �Give me liberty or give me death� speech. Along with Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, he was one of the most influential (and radical) advocates of the American Revolution and republicanism, especially in his denunciations of corruption in government officials and his defense of historic rights.

-Thomas Paine � released his book, Common Sense, which was an instant bestseller and had an enormous impact b/c of its challenge of colonial assumptions about the colonies� relationship to Britain.

-Samuel Adams � organized the Sons of Liberty, was a major part of the revolution and the demand for change, led the Committee of Correspondence�Important Revolutionary figure

-John Adams � Adams was born in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1735. A Harvard-educated lawyer, he early became identified with the patriot cause; a delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses, he led in the movement for independence. During the Revolutionary War he served in France and Holland in diplomatic roles, and helped negotiate the treaty of peace. He was also elected Vice President under Washington for 2 terms and later served as president of the US.

-John Locke � believed in enlightened reason +logic, humans can progress +develop a better society. His theory was that everyone has the right to pursue life, liberty, +property and the right to resist tyranny and revolt against the oppressor. The Declaration of Independence was based on John Locke� theories and concepts.

-Thomas Jefferson � Highly educated Virginia lawyer who wrote the Declaration of Independence. Later became a member of George Washington�s cabinet as Secretary of State and was the country�s 3^rd president.

-Ben Franklin � headed a campaign to pressure Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. He was the foreign ambassador to France and a major figure in the development of the Franco-American relations. He also served as Postmaster General under the Continental Congress. He was also known as a prominent abolitionist.

-George Washington � major war hero in the French and Indian War and later in the Revolutionary War. He was also the nation�s 1^st president and set many precedents during his presidency.

GB treated the colonies by neglecting them and they benefited from just not paying any attention to them (the idea of salutary neglect). In turn the colonies were able to develop their own lives. This policy of salutary neglect changed after the French and Indian war. GB now needed to pay their overwhelming debt that was accumulated during the war and they also wanted to recoup their interests in North America. Suddenly GB had to pay more attention to the colonies and the colonists were angry b/c they had a taste of freedom and now that was taken away from them. GB wanted the colonists to pay their debt by raising taxes, etc�

The colonists were angry b/c they didn�t want GB to get involved in their colonies and they didn�t want to be taxed b/c they felt that GB�s debts had nothing to do with them. The colonists wanted GB to keep their distance so that the colonies can run by themselves. GB felt that they had to charge the colonists high taxes b/c they believed that they fought the French and Indian war in order to protect the colonies. So they accumulated a huge debt just to protect the colonies from belligerent forces. The colonists eventually revolted b/c they lost key rights that they felt they deserved to have. GB was now watching them extra-carefully and colonists couldn�t smuggle, etc� Also they now had to pay high taxes, lost their rights like trial by jury, and had absolutely no representation in govt. These were all reasons that led the colonists to feel that they needed to pull away from GB and revolt in order to become a free nation.

�Common Sense� by Thomas Paine, was a form of propaganda that would rally colonists to their cause. Paine not only advocated colonial independence, he also argued for the merits of republicanism over monarchy. He wrote it anonymously b/c he didn�t want to draw attention to himself but still wanted to get him message across. His main argument was that the monarchy was responsible for the tyranny and it was time to proclaim independence b/c that would lead the colonists to a better life.

The Declaration of Independence is an example of enlightened thinking and it was an amalgamation of Jefferson�s thinking, John Locke and other enlightened thinkers. In the Declaration Jefferson wrote a list of grievances over the wrong that the King had done to the colonies.

Terms and Concepts

-Home field advantage � the colonists had home field advantage b/c they were fighting on their own land and therefore they were able to use guerilla warfare. They used this technique b/c it was the most successful way to fight b/c the Americans had less ammo and ppl. So they used an unorthodox method of surprise attacks on the British.

-Hessians/mercenaries � German soldiers who were paid by the British to fight in the Revolutionary was against the colonists.

-Yorktown � the French closed in on Gen. Cornwallis of GB with a French naval blockade of Chesapeake Bay +defeated GB fleet. Then 17,000 US troops bombarded GB and on Oct 17, 1781 � after a 1 month siege, Cornwallis surrendered. On Oct 19, Washington +troops assembled to accept GB surrender but Gen Charles O�Hara took over Cornwallis�s place�handed over sword = sign of honorable surrender

-Saratoga � Gen Burgoyne to lead GB army through lakes from Canada to Albany�meet up w/ Howe b/c they wanted to isolate New England. GB troops encountered resistance, low food supply, bad conditions = loss of 100s of men. Then Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys attacked Burgoyne. On October 17, Burgoyne surrenders to Gen Horatio Gates. The battle at Saratoga =psychological +military turning point�France interested in assisting US army, GB morale bad

-Lexington and Concord � Troops reached Lexington, Mass (5miles short of Concord) �found 70 minutemen, ordered them to leave and as they set weapons down a shot was fired = GB fired, 8 dead ��Battle of Lexington lasted 15mins. GB troops marched to Concord and found empty arsenal. GB troops preparing to march back to Boston when they were attacked by 3,000minutemen who slaughtered enemy troops. Reinforcements saved remaining GB troops from disaster. The outcome was Boston under siege by colonists and GB now became the enemy.

-Treaty of Paris (1783) � peace talks begin w/reps from 4 nations (US, France, GB and Spain). GB=no independence for US, France=yes independence, Spain=was interested in acquiring land btw Appalachian Mts. +Mississippi River. John Adams, Ben Franklin, John Jay of NY = us reps� demanded GB recognize US independence. On Sept 1783 � delegates signed Treaty of Paris = confirmed US independence. Terms of the treaty (1) GB to collect debts owed to them by US (2) did not specify when GB was to evacuate forts (3) no attempt to protect land interests of NAs (4) loyalists allowed to sue for recovery of damaged properties�state govts failed to honor agreement (5) 34,000 GB troops +loyalist left US

Important People

-Haym Salomon � a Jew and political refugee from Poland. The Continental Congress appointed him as superintendent of finance. He borrowed money on personal credit and raised funds to organize the govts. finances and set up a valid supply system.

Defeat in New York	-March 1776 � GB retreat from Boston, move war to middle states -General William Howe +brother sailed to NY Harbor +32,000soldiers +Germs -Germans soldiers fought for money = Hessians -G. Howe wanted to intimidate colonial army +humiliate Washington -Washington rallied 23,000 troops = outnumbered +poorly equipped -battle ended late August = heavy loses +American retreat -G Washington�s army pushed across Del River into Penn = 8,000 colonial troops remained
Battle of Trenton	-Christmas night, 1776 � Wash +2,400men across Del Riv�objective =Trenton NJ held by Hessians -surprise attack by US = 918captives +6canons +30dead -victory = rise in colonial morale -victory in Princeton against 1,200GB soldiers
Fight for Philadelphia	-G Howe�seize capital (Phili) -GB troops left NY by sea to Chesapeake Bay�CC fled, US lost ground = Howe took over Phili -colonist attack on Germantown, fog = US loss
Victory at Saratoga	-Gen Burgoyne to lead GB army through lakes from Canada to Albany�meet up w/ Howe = isolate NE -GB troops encountered resistance, low food supply, bad conditions = loss of 100s of men -Ethan Allen � Green Mountain Boys, attacked Burgoyne -October 17 � Burgoyne surrenders to Gen Horatio Gates -Saratoga = psychological +military turning point�France interested in assisting US army, GB morale bad
Early GB Success in South	-GB captured Savannah, Georgia +by 1779 royal govt. commanded Georgia -Gen Henry Clinton of GB replaced Howe + ambitious Gen Charles Cornwallis +8,500 men sailed south -May 1780 � GB captured Charles Town, SC +captured 5,500 US ppl -GB supported by blacks -GB endured harassment in NC +forced to retreat to SC

The Americans won the Revolutionary was b/c they had the morale to win. They also fought a war of attrition in which they wore down the British army. They did this to prolong the war so that the British ppl would put pressure on Parliament to end the war b/c of the loss of money, trade, business and the loss of life.

It was a weak national govt. and states began to write their own constitutions. The country was now also based on the Articles of Confederation that gave the national govt. very little power (didn�t give national govt. the power to tax or regulate trade). The Articles also had many other restrictions and called for unanimous consent of all the states. The Articles of Confederation were clearly more concerned with prohibiting the govt. from gaining too much power than empowering it to function effectively.

The founders created a weak govt. b/c after being under the control of a monarchy and fighting a long hard war for freedom, they didn�t want the new govt. to resemble that of GB. The people also didn�t want to have to deal with a strong central govt. in order to protect their freedoms and they felt a strong central govt. would be too imposing and no one would have any say in the creation of the new country.

Its greatest achievements were the adoption of ordinance governing the sale of govt. land to settlers. For example the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 guaranteed trial by jury, freedom of religion, and freedom from excessive punishment. It abolished slavery in the Northwest territories (northwest of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River up to the Canadian border), and also set specific regulations concerning the conditions under which territories could apply for statehood. The Northwest Ordinance remained important long after the northwest territories were settled, because of its pertinence to the statehood process and to the issue of slavery.

The wartime govt., unable to levy taxes, tried to finance the war by printing more money, which led to wild inflation. The govt. was also unable to impose tariffs, causing cheap foreign goods to be dumped on the American market which led to a sharp increase in imports. The govt. was also powerless in removing the British from posts still within the US b/c the Articles of Confederation gave them a restricted amount of power. When the govt. couldn�t put down Shays� rebellion, the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation became highlighted.

The delegates originally met over the problems with interstate commerce and the fight over taxes. Not enough states were interested in the original convention so nothing was resolved. The second time they met in Philadelphia over the fears that resulted from Shays� rebellion.

The Great Compromise by Roger Sherman and the ³/₅Compromise were both extremely significant. The Great Compromise led to a bicameral house and an upper and lower house which later defined the structure of the US govt. The ³/₅Compromise resulted in giving Congress the power to regulate foreign trade but not the slave trade for 20yrs. This gave southern states a free hand at bringing slaves into the US in addition to mistreating them. Because of this compromise the govt. now had no power over the slave trade, which continued to happen. This was b/c this compromise set a precedent that the govt. would not get involved in the slave trade and other issues involving slaves especially in the South.

Terms and Concepts

-Legislative Branch � enacts laws, have exclusive authority to raise taxes and adopt the budget and other money bills. The consent of the legislature is also often required to ratify treaties and declare war.

-Elitist v. populist � the belief or attitude that the people who are considered to be the elite are the people whose views on a matter are to be taken the most seriously, or that these are persons whose views should be regarded as carrying the most weight, or, more simply, these people are best fit to govern or whose views and/or actions are mostly likely to be constructive VS. appeals to the the common people in the population to rise up against what is portrayed as an entrenched and corrupt elite.

-Elastic clause � this clause is used by Congress to fit things in that never existed prior to the Constitution (ex: Alexander Hamilton used this argument for creating the National Bank)

-17^th Amendment � Senators are now elected by popular vote / but were originally appointed by the state legislator

-Habeas corpus � is the name of a legal action or writ by means of which detainees can seek relief from unlawful imprisonment. The writ of habeas corpus in common law countries is an important instrument for the safeguarding of individual freedom against arbitrary state action.

-Bill of Attainder � can�t have a law directed towards one person

-Ex post facto � retroactive law, a law that retroactively changes the legal consequences of acts committed or the legal status of facts and relationships that existed prior to the enactment of the law. In reference to criminal law, it may criminalize actions that were legal when committed; or to aggravate a crime by bringing it into a more severe category than it was at the time it was committed; or to change or increase the punishment prescribed for a crime, such as by adding new penalties or extending terms; or to alter the rules of evidence in order to make conviction for a crime more likely than it would have been at the time of the action for which a defendant is prosecuted. Conversely, an ex post facto law may decriminalize certain acts or alleviate possible punishments (for example by replacing the death sentence with life-long imprisonment) retroactively.

-Federalism � insisted that division of powers + checks and balances =protect Americans from tyranny of centralized govt. G. Washington, James Madison (Federalists) = used their experience to win support for Constitution. Got support from laborers, merchants, skilled workers, urban centers, small states �saw benefit from strong national govt.

-10^th Amendment � states that any power not granted to the federal govt. belongs to the states or to the ppl

-Reserved powers � 10^th Amendment, powers that the United States Constitution does not give to the federal government, or forbid to the states, are reserved to the people or the states.

-concurrent powers � non binding agreements and solutions that have to be voted on and passed

-lobbyists � consist of the private cajoling of legislative members, public actions (ex: mass demonstrations), or combinations of both public and private actions (ex: encouraging constituents to contact their legislative representatives).

-Constituents � someone who appoints or elect (and often by implication can also remove or recall) another as their agent or representative

-conference committee � members of both houses and both parties compromise the 2 bills and then send it to the full body for approval and then its sent to the president and the president can either approve or veto the compromised bill

-veto � to deny the bill from getting passed

-override � when a president vetoes a bill, congress can override his veto with ²/₃ vote, cancels the veto

-filibuster � an attempt to extend debate upon a proposal in order to delay or completely prevent a vote on its passage

-cloture � a petition for ending a filibuster, a cloture must be voted on by ³/₅ of the whole number of senators

-executive branch � carries out the laws that the legislature passes

-electoral college � group of Presidential Electors who are chosen every four years to cast the electoral vote and thereby elect the President and Vice President of the United States.. Originally it was an educated nonpartisan group that would confirm the people�s vote. But they could also remedy the situation and choose whoever they see fit to be president. The founders didn�t trust the people to choose the right person to be president so the electoral college was the groups that double checked and then had the last word on whoever would become president.

-judicial branch � hears and rules on cases

-supreme court � the highest court in the United States, with powers of judicial review

-original jurisdiction � the authority of a court to hold a trial, as distinguished from appellate jurisdiction to hear appeals from trial judgments.

-appellate jurisdiction � a court of appeals which hears appeals from lower court decisions.

-loose v. strict constitution � Loose constructionists believe that if the constitution doesn�t mention that you cant do something then you can VS. strict constructionists believe that if it doesn�t say that you can do something then you can�t do it.

-federalist papers � a series of 85 essays defending Constitution (10/1787 � 4/1788)� by Alex Hamilton James Madison, John Jay�provided analysis +explanation of Constitution

-bill of rights � written guarantee of freedom of speech, press, +religion, trial by jury

-establishment clause � 1^st Amendment � �Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion� shows a seperation between church and state and that the country will have no national religion. Also known as 1 of the 2 religion clauses.

-free exercise � �Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.� 2^nd religion clause. Gives people the freedom to believe and practice any religion.

-right to �bear arms� � is stated in the 2^nd Amendment, but doesn�t give the right to everyone to own guns just members of the militia

-unreasonable search and seizure � search of an individual or his/her premises (including an automobile) and/or seizure of evidence found in such a search by a law enforcement officer without a search warrant and without "probable cause" to believe evidence of a crime is present. Such a search and/or seizure is unconstitutional under the 4th Amendment (applied to the states by the 14th Amendment), and evidence obtained thereby may not be introduced in court

-exclusionary rule � the rule that evidence secured by illegal means cannot be introduced in a criminal trial. The technical term is that it is "excluded" upon a motion to suppress made by the lawyer for the accused. It is based on the constitutional requirement that ��no [person] can be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law� (5^th Amendment to the Constitution, applied to the states by 14^th Amendment). A technical error in a search warrant made in good faith will not cause exclusion of the evidence obtained under that warrant.

-probable cause � sufficient reason based upon known facts to believe a crime has been committed or that certain property is connected with a crime. Probable cause must exist for a law enforcement officer to make an arrest without a warrant, search without a warrant, or seize property in the belief the items were evidence of a crime.

-double jeopardy � placing someone on trial a second time for an offense for which he/she has been previously acquitted, even when new incriminating evidence has been unearthed. This is specifically prohibited by the 5^th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

-trial by jury � every citizen has the right to demand a trial by jury

-no excessive bail � an amount of bail ordered posted by an accused defendant which is much more than necessary or usual to assure he/she will make court appearances, particularly in relation to minor crimes. If excessive bail is claimed, the defendant can make a motion for reduction of bail, and if it is not granted, he/she can then apply directly to a court of appeal for reduction.

-right to an attorney � every citizen has a right to an attorney to defend them in trial

-Miranda rights � ��you have the right to remain silent,� rights that protect a person from self incrimination at the time of their arrest.

-speedy and public trail � 6^th Amendment, every citizen has the right to a speedy and public trail and that right cannot be denied

-self incrimination � the 5^th Amendment protects citizens from saying something that can give the authorities a reason to suspect them.

-cruel and unusual punishment � the 8^th Amendment protects citizens from cruel and unusual punishment.

-Engel v. Vitale � No mandatory prayer in public schools = reinforced separation of church and state. (1^st Amendment)

-Schenck v. US � Schenck told people publicly, not to enlist in the army. He got arrested and sued b/c he said it violated his freedom of speech. But the case went to court and the court upheld the arrest and said it was done within the constitutional limits. Justice Holms said, �you don�t have the right to yell fire in a crowded movie theatre.� This means everyone has free speech but in a time of crisis (ex: WWI) you can�t publicly criticize the govt. b/c it can cause panic. (1^st Amendment)

-NY Times v. US � also known as the Pentagon Papers case. Someone leaked govt. secrets about Vietnam and the NY Times published it. There was an injunction to stop the info from being published. The govt. lost and the NY Times won. The court upheld the censorship of documents that threatened national security but they also said these documents just embarrassed the govt. and didn�t put anyone in danger.

-Sullivan v. NY Times � set up the test for liable = limits speech or press. To prove liable you have to prove that what is being printed is false and did the newspaper know it was false or could they have reasonably found out that it was false but ignored the evidence and still printed the story. And if the story that was printed caused damage to the person it was printed about.

-Korematsu v. US � An American citizen of Japanese decent sued the country. President says that all Japanese citizens on the west coast where to be put into concentration camps and they had a curfew and many new restrictions. Korematsu didn�t report to the camp and got arrested and he sued. But the Supreme Court upheld the arrest b/c they said that it was at a time of war and in order to protect the Japanese from angry Americans that would kill them. Korematsu lost and the edict was upheld and even today that precedent still stands. (14^th Amendment)

-Roe v. Wade � a woman has a right to have an abortion b/c it�s her privacy and that�s a constitutional right that no state can deny. Still stands today. (14^th Amendment)

-Brown v. Topeka Board of Education � desegregation �federal govt. said states can�t violate the 14^th Amendment.

-US v. Nixon � When the Watergate scandal was discovered, the govt. demanded copies of Oval office recordings. But he felt it was his right not to reveal what was spoken about in the oval office. The Supreme Court listened to the tapes and upheld the principle of executive privilege but they felt nothing on the tapes had to do with the national security but with the president�s crimes. Nixon lost.

-Mapp v. Ohio � if you violate the 4^th Amendment (get evidence without search warrants) the evidence is inadmissable (4^th Amendment)

-Gideon v. Wainwright � a poor Florida guy was convicted of breaking and entering and had already had 3 strikes against him. He went to jail and got a life sentence. He appealed the sentence because he caimed he didn�t have a lawyer. The case went to Supreme Court and the court said it was unconstitutional because the man had not received a fair trial = retried (6^th Amendment)

-Miranda v. Arizona � ��you have the right to remain silent� (protects from self incrimination during the time of arrest) (5^thAmendment)

- 1^st Amendment � protects the people�s freedom of speech (verbal and symbolic-nonverbal), religion, petition and assembly

- 2^nd Amendment � protects the rights to own guns (memebers of the militia only)

- 3^rd Amendment � guarantees that the army cannot force homeowners to house troops in peacetime

- 4^th Amendment � protects the people from the govt. improperly siezing property without a valid warrant based on probable cause. EX: 1964 Mapp vs. Ohio � if you violate the 4^th Amendment (get evidence without search warrants) the evidence is inadmissable

- 5^th Amendment � protects people from being held for commiting a crime unless they are properly indicted, that they may not be tried twice for the same crime (double jepordy), protects from self incrimination, and from property being taken without just compensation. EX: 1966 Miranda vs. Arizona � ��you have the right to remain silent� (protects from self incrimination during the time of arrest)

- 6^th Amendment � guarantees a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, that the accused can confront witnesses, and that the accused must be allowed to have a lawyer. EX: 1963 Gideon vs. Wainwright � a poor Florida guy was convicted of breaking and entering and had already had 3 strikes against him. He went to jail and got a life sentence. He appealed the sentence because he caimed he didn�t have a lawyer. The case went to Supreme Court and the court said it was unconstitutional because the man had not received a fair trial = retried

- 8^th Amendment � guarantees that punishments will be fair and not cruel, and that large fines will not be set

- 9^th Amendment � clarifies that the ppls�s rights are not restricted to just those specifically mentioned in the Constitution

- 10^th Amendment � states that any power not granted to the federal govt. belongs to the states or to the ppl

- 11^th Amendment � defines the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, concerning a suit brought against a stated by a citizen of another state

- 12^th Amendment � redefines how the President and Vice-President are chosen by the Electoral College, making the two positions cooperative, rather than first and second highest vote-getters. It also ensures that anyone who becomes Vice-President must be eligible to become President.

- 13^th Amendment � abolished slavery in the entire US. Congress has the power to enforce this.

- 14^th Amendment � ensured that all citizens of all states enjoyed not only rights on the federal level, but on the state level, too. It removed the three-fifths counting of slaves in the census. It ensured that the United States would not pay the debts of rebellious states. It also had several measures designed to ensure the loyalty of legislators who participated on the Confederate side of the Civil War.

- 15^th Amendment � ensures that race cannot be used as a criteria for voting (women still didn�t have the right to vote)

- 16^th Amendment � authorizes the US to collect income tax without regard to the population of the states (federal income tax)

- 17^th Amendment � Senators elected by popular vote / originally appointed by the state legislator

- 18^th Amendment � abolished sale or manifacture of alcohol in the US�worst amendment b/c created organized crime + mass dissrespect for the law = repealed

- 19^th Amendment � ensures that gender cannot be used as a criteria for voting (women and everyone over the age of 21 could vote)

- 20^th Amendment � set new start dates for the terms of the Congress and the President, and clarifies how the deaths of Presidents before swearing-in would be handled.

- 22^nd Amendment � set a limit on the number of times a President could be elected - two four-year terms. It has one exception for a Vice-President who assumes the Presidency after the death or removal of the President, establishing the maximum term of any President to 10 years. 1947, ratified in 1951

- 23^rd Amendment � grants the District of Columbia (Washington D.C.) the right to three electors in Presidential elections.

- 24^th Amendment � ensured that no tax could be charged to vote for any federal office

- 25^th Amendment � clarifies the line of succession to the Presidency and establishes rules for a President who becomes unable to perform his duties while in office (if something happens to pres, the vice pres becomes pres then speaker of the house)

- 27^th Amendment � requires that any law that increased the pay of legislators may not take effect until after an election

(1) a bill is introduced in the House or Senate and refeerred to a standing committee for consideration. (2) A bill may be reported out of committee with or without changes, or it may be shelved. (3) either house od Congress debated the bill and may make revisions. If passed, the bill is sent to the other house. (4) if the House and Senate pass different versions of a bill, both versions go out to a conference committee to work out the differences. (5) the conference committee submits a single version of the bill to the House and the Senate. (6) if both houses accept the compromised version, the bill is sent to the president for signature. (7) of the president signs thebill, it becomes a law. (8) if the president vetoes the bill, the House and Senate may override the veto by a ²/₃majority of the members present in each house, and then the bill becomes a law.

Terms and Concepts

-Cabinet � a collection of department heads that are close to the president and discuss major decisions, etc� Washington introduced the idea of a cabinet and it became a precedent that many presidents after followed.

-Judiciary Act of 1789 � created a judicial structure� provided for Supreme Court +Chief Justice +5 associate justices +set up 3 federal circuit courts +13 federal district courts throughout the country

-National Bank � would be funded by both federal govt. and private investors

-issue paper money +handle tax receipts +other govt. funds. Opposition: James Madison = bank would forge an unhealthy alliance btwn govt. +wealthy business interests, +Constitution made no provisions for a national bank. But Hamilton convinced Washington +majority of Congress to establish national bank

-Whiskey Rebellion � during GW�s 2^nd term congress had passed a protective tariff � an import tax on goods produced in Europe� a lot of revenue, Secretary Hamilton wanted more, so an excise tax was passed � a tax on a product�s manufacture, sale, or distribution (levied on manufacture if whiskey). But at that time farmers would distill corn into whiskey to transport over Appalachian Mts. to sell. The tax cause problems for farmers so in 1794 � farmers in western Penn refused to pay the tax +got angry�attacked federal marshals in Pittsburg +threatened to secede from the Union. Washington saw Whiskey Rebellion as opportunity to enforce the law in west so he called up 15,000 militiamen and put down the rebellion. rebellion = milestone in the consolidation of federal power in domestic affairs +new govt. was also facing critical problems +challenges in foreign affairs (relations w/Europe +NA ppl in Appalachians)

-Jay�s Treaty � John Jay in London to negotiate treaty. Problems: a. GB still occupied forts in US Northwest Territory

b. wanted freedom of the seas: Impressments of Seamen � GB navy would go on US ships and capture sailors and passengers and claim they were deserters and force them to join GB navy +attacked US merchant ships

c. problems with land passed the Appalachian Mts. = border skirmishes btwn GB soldiers and US settlers

d. US fishermen were supposed to receive the rights to fish off the waters of New Finland but GB stopped the fishermen

**Even after the Jay treaty there were still many problems and grievances btwn GB +US and that ultimately led to the war of 1812

1794 � GB agreed to evacuate Northwest Territory and stay on Canadian land

The objective of these treaties was to become isolationists

-Pinckney�s Treaty � favored what US wanted�Spain gave up all claims to land east of the Mississippi (except Florida) +recognized the 31^st parallel as the northern boundary of Florida. Free Deposit agreement � Spain also agreed to open Miss River to US traffic +allow US traders to use New Orleans. Important treaty b/c it helped pave the way for US expansion west of Appalachians

-Democratic-Republican � believed in: limited central govt., agrarian economy, strong state govts., democratic system based on more popular participation. Later became the Democratic Party

-Isolationism � a policy that Washington introduced and became a precedent that was reinforced until the US was attacked by Japan at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. This policy means that the US would not get involved in foreign issues so that no foreign country would get involved in US issues.

-Declaration of Neutrality � Washington declared neutrality in order to avoid �entangling alliances� and to stay isolationists. This policy also lasted until WWI.

Important People

-Henry Knox � secretary of war in Washington�s cabinet

-Alexander Hamilton � believed in strong central +federal govt. led by educated, upper class citizens, fear of mob rule, loose interpretation of constitution, national bank = constitutional, believed in the repayment of national +state debts, his keys to success: commerce, industry, Hamilton�s vision = Great Britain, won endorsement of North (NE), was secretary of treasury, supporters: merchants, manufacturers, landowners, investors, lawyers, clergy

-Thomas Jefferson � distrusted strong central govt. +upper class citizens, favored strong state +local govts. w/ equal participation=share power, limited national govt., democracy of virtuous farmers and trades people, strict interpretation of constitution, key to success: farming, payment of only national debt, favored society of farmer-citizens and like France, won endorsement of South +West, supporters: farmers, trades people

-Edmund Randolph � George Washington�s attorney general and member of the first ever Cabinet

Washington wanted the US to become isolationists and didn�t want them to get involved in �entangling alliances� / US was an isolationist country until December 7, 1941 when that policy ended and the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. The reason the US was able to stay an isolationist country for so long was because there was an ocean separating us and the rest of the world (aka Europe).

- key issues: the power and size of the federal govt. in relation to state +local govts.

- Republicans believed in: limited central govt., agrarian economy, strong state govts., democratic system based on more popular participation

- Parties originated as political clubs, groups +met to discuss issues+ spread opinions

- Two-party system � initially Federalists and Republicans, established = caused tension and criticism

After the XYZ Affair, Adams looked to creating the Navy as a way to solve the problem and that led to an undeclared war between the US and France. In the beginning the Federalists supported Adams b/c they wanted war against France but then when Adams came short of declaring an all out war, the Federalists were angry and he lost a lot of support.

Terms and Concepts

-Election of 1800 � Pres campaign of 1800 was struggle btwn Tom Jefferson (Republican) +Pres John Adams (Federalist). Republicans said: John Adams = tool of the rich, wanted to turn executive branch into GB style monarchy. Federalists said: Jefferson = dangerous supporter of revolutionary France, +atheist who wanted to destroy organized religion. Jefferson defeated Adams by 8 electoral votes, Aaron Burr (Jefferson�s running mate) received the same amt of votes as Jefferson in electoral college�the HOR had to choose who would be pres btw Jefferson +Burr. Hamilton intervened, caused Federalists to vote for Jefferson�Jefferson = president, Burr = vice president. Voting deadlock revealed flaw in Constitution = congress passed 12^th Amendment which separates ballots for president +vice president

-Louisiana Purchase � 1800 � Napoleon persuaded Spain to return the Louisiana Territory which it had received from France in 1762. Jefferson feared strong French presence in the US�wanted to buy New Orleans + Florida from France, so he sent James Monroe to join US ambassador Robert Livingston in Paris. But Napoleon abandoned idea of empire in American b/c they lost important colony of Haiti=saw no reason to keep Louisiana. So in 1803 he offered to sell Louisiana to US for $15mil. Monroe +Livingston didn�t consult govt. about purchase+ Jefferson felt purchase was unconstitutional but then he realized it could form the �empire of liberty� that was his vision for the nation +submitted treaty finalizing purchase then congress ratified it. outcome: additional 900,000 sq. miles = doubled the size of US, gained control of Miss River, +15 states, increased commerce and trade, agriculture, resources, eliminated France as neighbors +rival

-Embargo Act � b/c of continued tension btwn the US and GB Jefferson convinced congress to declare an embargo � a ban on exporting products to other countries. It was problematic b/c: (1) it killed the US economy (high unemployment), esp. in NE and led to smuggling, (2) it did not really hurt Britain overall as the people it affected (factory workers) had no role in govt., (3) it did not really hurt France b/c there was already was British blockade on Europe. Its only positive effect was that it encouraged domestic manufacturing.

-Lewis and Clark � 1803 � appointed Meriwether Lewis +William Clarke to lead expedition from St. Louis to the Pacific coast. Sacagawea � was a Native American woman who served as an interpreter +guide. The expedition took 2 years +4months and was a great success b/c they were able to map out the Louisiana territory and found resources, and documented animals for hunting. They also brought back valuable info about the West +showed transcontinental travel was possible. It opened way for settlements in the West +strengthened US claims to the Oregon Territory on the northwest coast.

Important People

-Aaron Burr � Was vice president but lost the opportunity to be president b/c Hamilton persuaded the House to vote for Jefferson. Burr responded by challenging Hamilton to a duel and Hamilton accepted. In duel Burr shot and killed Hamilton

-Alexander Hamilton � A great Federalist leader from NY. In 1800 � Hamilton convinced Federalist legislators 2 back Jefferson instead of Burr. In 1804 � Hamilton backed Burr�s opponent in race for governor of NY. This caused tension btwn the two and resulted in a duel that left Hamilton dead.

Jefferson ran for president with the idea of and demonstrated simplicity. He tried to cut cost and shrink the govt. by reducing the size of the army, halting expansion of the Navy, and rolling back Hamilton�s economic program by eliminating all internal taxes and reducing the influence of the Bank of US. He also initially believed that it was best to halt expansion of the country as a whole; that means an end to moving westward. But his policies radically changes as his presidency moved forward. He started developing Federalist ideas, starting with the Louisiana Purchase and including the Lewis and Clark expedition and the Barbary Coast war. After purchasing Louisiana he single handedly doubled the size of the US. The Lewis and Clark expedition resulted in the discovery of new territories, the mapping out of the West and the idea that transcontinental travel was possible. The Barbary Coast war led Jefferson to expand the size of the Navy and to develop the Marine Corps. Meanwhile when Jefferson became president he ran on the platform of simplicity and had tried to reduce the size of the army and Navy.

The War Hawks were angry b/c they were mad that the Native Americans were occupying the Indiana Territory and GB was aiding the Indians. General Harrison then led troops to fight the Indians in the Battle of Tippecanoe, and they beat the Indians. The War Hawks were then angry at the British and wanted war b/c it was discovered that GB were aiding the Native Americans in Canada.

- wanted freedom of the seas: Impressments of Seamen � GB navy would go on US ships and capture sailors and passengers and claim they were deserters and force them to join GB navy +attacked US merchant ships

- problems with land passed the Appalachian Mts. = border skirmishes btwn GB soldiers and US settlers

- US fishermen were supposed to receive the rights to fish off the waters of New Finland but GB stopped the fishermen

To solve these problems in 1815, a commercial treaty reopened trade btwn GB and US. In 1817 the Rush-Bagot agreement limited the number of warships on the Great Lakes. In 1818 the British-American commission set the northern boundary of Louisiana Territory at the 49^th parallel as far west as the Rocky Mts. They also made an agreement on a ten-year joint occupation of the Oregon Territory.

Because the Embargo Act killed the US economy and trading, the country was forced to become industrialized. They couldn�t trade or import so they began to industrialize and make whatever goods they needed.

Terms and Concepts

-Era of Good Feeling � the time during Monroe�s presidency when there was only one political party left in the US. During this period the federal govt. was at its strongest point.

-Sectionalism � placing the interests of one region over those of the nation as a whole

-The American System � an economic plan based on the ideas of Alexander Hamilton. This plan consisted of a high tariff to support internal improvements such as road building, and a national bank to encourage productive enterprise and form a national currency. This program was intended to allow the US to grow by providing a defense against the dumping of cheap foreign products from GB. The system was passed during the Era of Good Feeling and it produced a sense of nationalism and an awareness that the economic infrastructure needed help. This plan was supported by the Whig Party and opposed by the Democratic party. The most known improvements created under the American system were the Erie Canal and the Cumberland Road.

-National Road � the federal govt. began constructing highways + by 1833 it extended from Maryland to Illinois

-Erie Canal � known as the �Big Ditch� began in 1817 and by 1825 it linked the Hudson River (Atlantic Ocean) to Lake Erie (Great Lakes). In 12yrs the canal tolls paid for its construction�other states built over 3,000miles of canals by 1837 b/c they saw how successful NY became from the Erie Canal.

-Tariff � a tax on imported items

-Missouri Compromise � (1) admitted Missouri as a slave state, (2) carved off a piece of Massachusetts and called it Maine and then admitted Maine as a free state, (3) established the southern border of Missouri as the northernmost point in which slavery would then be allowed in the western territories of the US. The compromise was the first in a series of measures forestalling the Civil War. It also split the powerful Demo-Republican coalition, ending its 20yr control of national politics.

-Monroe Doctrine � 1807 � Napoleon invaded Spain +Portugal = S+P didn�t have money to protect their Latin American colonies. 1815 � Napoleon was defeated; Spain and Portugal wanted to reclaim colonies in Latin America. Russia was present in Alaska since 1784, established trading posts in California. 1821 � Czar of Russia claimed that Alaska�s southern boundary was 51^st parallel �forbade any foreign vessels from using the coast north of the parallel. In 1823 � Pres Monroe�s message to congress�European powers will not interfere w/affairs in Western Hemisphere, could not create new colonies or try to overthrow newly independent republics in hemisphere� US would consider it as �dangerous to our peace +safety� +US wouldn�t be involved in European affairs +w/existing European colonies in western hem�Monroe Doctrine

Important People

-John Quincy Adams � favored nationalism, his foreign policy was based on national interests +unity + believed that foreign policy should be guided by nation�s self interest. Expansion of nation�s territory = said it would lead to better security. 1817 Rush-Bagot Treaty � (Adams) GB to reduce fleet in Great Lakes = US +Canada to demilitarize the common border. Convention of 1818 � (Adams) fixed US border at 49^th parallel up to Rocky Mts. +jointly occupy Oregon Territory, territory west of Rockies w/GB =10 years. 1819 Adams-On�s Treaty � (Adams) Spain gave up Florida b/c they weren�t strong enough to protect assets in New World territories +disavowed any claims it had in Oregon Territory. He won the electoral college vote (the corrupt bargain � made Clay secretary of state after Clay persuaded the House to support Adams), no spoils system, very big nationalist, wanted to end land speculation, supported the Cherokee in Georgia.

-Henry Clay � the great compromiser, he devised the Missouri Compromise

It was called the Era of Good Feeling because during Monroe�s presidency it was a time of tranquility and prosperity. People were happy and there was no political opposition because even though Monroe was a Republican from Virginia, he was still well liked by the Federalist Party. And during his presidency there was no political opposition to the Republican Party.

With the introduction of the American system, the govt. was able to strengthen the nation�s economy (see definition of American system)

The Monroe Doctrine was written in 1823. On Dec. 2, 1823 in his regular annual message to Congress, President Monroe warned European powers against any attempt to colonize and intervene in countries and matters in the US sphere of influence. Monroe stressed non-colonization and non-intervention. Non-colonization meant that America would keep their colonies and whatever colonies the other powers had conquered they could keep without acquiring additional colonies. The Western Hemisphere would also no longer be available to colonization by European powers. Non-intervention meant that America did not want the European powers to interfere with matters within their hemisphere and sphere of influence. Any attempt by any European country to establish colonies in the New World or to gain political control of any American colony would be viewed as an unfriendly act. That also included intervention and attempts at colonization of Latin American countries. America also agreed not to interfere in European affairs. It was written in response to the Spanish claim on certain colonies in Latin America. America was against these claims by Spain because they wanted to benefit from the colonies in their hemisphere and they didn�t want a strong European presence south of the US border.

Terms and Concepts

-Spoils system � �to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy� �incoming officials throw out former appointees +replace them w/their own friends

-Indian Removal Act � 1830, by Congress�fed govt. provided funds to negotiate treaties that would force NAs to move west

-Trail of Tears � 1835 � fed govt. declared that Cherokee wanted relocation +forced them to sign the Treaty of Echota�gave last 8mil acres of Cherokee land to govt. in exchange for $5mil +land in Oklahoma. 1838 � nearly 20,000 Cherokee still remained in East so Pres Van Buren ordered forced removal = exodus of Cherokee. In Oct-Nov 1838, the Cherokee were sent off on 800-mile trip�many NAs died + ppl stole their money, etc� = � of the ppl died�the journey was known as the Trail of Tears.

-Worcester v. Georgia � 1832, Worcester was a missionary and supported the Cherokee. He sued the state of Georgia on behalf of the Cherokee, who ended up winning the rights due to them. The court recognized Cherokee nation as distinct political community +Georgia was not entitled to regulate the ppl or invade their land

-Tariff of Abominations � 1828, high tariff on manufactured goods = reduced GB exports, GB bought less cotton and that caused problems for the south that relied on cotton sales

-Nullification theory � (Calhoun) questioned the legality of applying some federal laws in sovereign states. US constitution was based on a compact among the 13 sovereign states and they still must be sovereign +had a right to determine whether an act of Congress was constitutional. If not = state had a right to declare the offending law nullified w/in state borders.

-Webster-Hayne Debate �

Robert Hayne (SC)

-delivered pointed condemnation to tariff (of Abominations)

Daniel Webster (Mass)

-supported the tariff of abominations

-identified key ques: was the Union the creation of state legislatures or of the people?

-state legislature = control of the Union

-believed Union = �made for the people; made by the people; and answerable to the people.�

-specie circular � (Coinage Act) was an executive order issued by Jackson in 1836 and carried out by President Martin Van Buren. It required payment for public lands be in gold and silver specie (money) and not on credit. This was a reaction to growing concerns about excessive speculation of land after the Indian Removal, most done with "soft money". Jackson issued this order to protect the settlers who were forced to pay greatly inflated land prices with devalued paper currency. As a result, however, much paper money was instantly devalued. It also moved much of the specie (hard money) to the west to pay for land transactions at a time when eastern banks needed it. Specie was short in the East because the British government restricted specie transfer to the United States, which contributed to the Panic of 1837. This shortage led to a fall in cotton prices, a collateral in most American loans, which required specie. These loans became harder to acquire, cotton became devalued, and the US economy suffered. The Specie Circular only worsened this economic panic.

-pet banks � select state banks, loyal to the democratic party

-Whig Party � 1834, ppl like Clay +Webster who were frustrated w/Jackson. Created a political party similar to a group in GB that tried to limit royal power = opposition to excessively power chief executive

Important People

-Henry Clay � Compromise 1833 � Clay proposed a tariff bill that would lower duties over a 10yr pd. He also introduced the idea of the renewal of the Bank of US as a campaign issue.

-John C. Calhoun � developed the Nullification theory

-Daniel Webster � politician from Massachusetts, supported the tariff of abominations

-Robert Hayne � was a politician from South Carolina, he condemned the tariff of abominations

-Nicholas Biddle � Bank of US pres = corruption�extended loans to rich +famous at lower interest rates +avg. citizens didn�t benefit in the same way. Then when Jackson wanted to eliminate the Bank of US, Biddle wanted to save the BUS so he changed the policy of the bank by demanding payment of loans to individuals +private businesses+ refused to make new loans.

The election of 1828 ushered in the beginning of the modern political party system. Jackson was still angry about losing the 1824 presidential campaign so he set up a coalition of state political organizations, newspaper publishers, and other community leaders that rallied around his campaign. That group became the present day Democratic Party. The campaign was viscous b/c the 2 candidates used slander in order to make the other seem like the bad guy. Jackson appealed to the ppl because he portrayed the image of a man of the ppl and he claimed that he was just a simple man from humble origins even though he was a plantation owner. His supporters were the Jacksonians, who withdrew from the Republican Party formed the Democratic-Republican Party (today�s Democrats) after Adams won the election of 1824 and then appointed Clay as secretary of state. The Jacksonians tried to sabotage Adam�s policies = opposed national bank +tariffs.

The tariff disputes led to sectionalism b/c the North supported the tariff b/c that meant they would have less competition with imported goods from GB. So the tariff helped the North�s manufacturing businesses. But the South relied on cheap goods and like free trade b/c then they didn�t have to pay a tariff and could buy cheap imported goods instead of more expensive American made goods. So the tariff meant that the South now had to pay a high tariff and they felt it that it wasn�t fair and they were angry. South Carolina was especially angry and threatened to secede and refused to pay the tariff. Jackson responded by saying too bad everyone has to pay the tariff and he urged Congress to pass the Force Bill in 1833� allowed federal govt. to use army +navy against South Carolina if state authorities resisted proper duties. So Clay devised the Compromise of 1833 which was a tariff bill that would lower duties over 10yr pd.

Marshall strengthened the federal govt. b/c he ruled that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. This ruling affirmed the principle of Judicial Review which is the power of the court to review an act or law for constitutionality. This also gave power to the Judicial Branch and gave the branches equal power.

These landmark cases established the precedent that federal trumps state. The federal govt. has the final say and is more powerful than the state govt.

	Colonies	Great Britain
Population	2.7 million + ¹/₃ Loyalists	12 million
Army	Undisciplined, inexperienced, very poorly equipped, small, some good leadership, disorganized	Complete OPPOSITE of colonial army, professionally trained, well equipped, great leadership, best navy in the world
Industry	NONE! Against the law to have industry, everything imported and taxed	BEST in the world� the only industrialized nation in the world so far
Finances	NONE!	WEALTHIEST country in the world!
Geography	Home field advantage, familiarity, close to supplies, assisted in guerilla warfare	Strange land, far away from supplies, far from Headquarters
Incentive	Fighting for their lives, for FREEDOM. This was a fight for everything they had (home, family, freedom) there was no losing b/c if they were to lose they would lose everything	This was a JOB, there was no vested interest but they didn�t want to lose even though they had no desperation to win. After losing they can always go home to GB. But the soldiers were lonely, they had a lack of understanding and were far away from home

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