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Jewish History AP Review |
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Jewish History AP Review |
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Contents: |
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� Cyrus � כורש � King of Persia; conquered the Babylonian army and gained control of Mesopotamia.
� Edict of Cyrus � הצהרת כורש � the Temple in Jerusalem was to be rebuilt and all the exiles who wished might return to Judea.
� Zerubbabel - זרובבל � a descendant of King David; nephew of Sheshbazzar - was his successor as governor; after 18 years of construction, the Temple was still not completed; he was credited with completing the construction of the Temple.
� Darius � דריוש � ascended to the throne of Persia � encouraged the Jews to complete the Temple; כלים used in the First Temple were now used in the Second (the Persians recovered them from the Babylonians); many Jews gathered in Jerusalem, and many in the Diaspora sent money to Judea.
� חגאי\זכריה � two prophets who agitated for the completion of the Temple. Zechariah also contained apocalyptic prophecies of the coming of the משיח.
� עזרא ונחמיה � traveled from Babylon to Israel; they wanted to strengthen Judaism in ארץ ישראל � they were given political authority (סמכות) by the King of Persia. 1. There was a lack of stability (חסר יציבות) in the empire.
2. Assimilation (התבוללות) and intermarriage (נשואי תערבת), violated the Sabbath, did not give tithes, lacked morality, etc.
� Ezra � עזרא � was a scribe. He was an expert in הלכה and made תקנות, or laws � עזרא ובית דינו. He read the Torah in front of the entire nation on סוכות, and explained it � this was a covenant-renewal ceremony, and continued the מסורת of תורה שבעל פה � it was one of the foundations of מדרש. Finally, Ezra also forbid intermarriage, and expelled the 113 foreign wives from the community.
� Nehemiah � נחמיה � rebuilt the walls surrounding Jerusalem; fought against the Samaritans. [He also undertook religious reform, fighting against intermarriage, insisting that tithes be paid, and encouraging the strict observance of שבת.]
� Elephantine � a Jewish military colony living in Egypt, sent there by the Persians; Aramaic documents (papyri) which have survived provide us with a picture of the colony�s culture and religion (a syncretistic form of worship), and that of the Jews in Israel. They tried to celebrate Passover according to הלכה. They built a temple there, and after it was destroyed in an anti-Semitic attack, the Samaritans helped convince the Persians to allow the Jews of Elephantine to rebuild their temple.
� Samaritans � שומרנים � a mixed people made up of remnants of the populace of the destroyed northern kingdom of Israel and various groups brought in by the Assyrians � they opposed the building of the Temple, and fought with the Jews. They built a temple of their own on הר גריזים late in the Persian period. They were rejected by the Jewish community because of their uncertain lineage.
� Chronicles � דברי הימים � a review of the history of Israel with emphasis on the Davidic period and the Davidic dynasty.
� מלאכי � last book in Prophets; discusses sacrificial rituals and the end of days.
� Canonization � חתימת התנ"ך � the Torah was canonized by the days of עזרא ונחמיה; prophecy ceased with the coming of Alexander the Great; the Writings are a diverse collection�it was uncertain whether קהלת (human wisdom, perhaps, and not that of G-d) and שיר השירים (a love story) should be included.
II. Hellenistic Age & Maccabean Revolt (60-79)
� 332 B.C.E. � Alexander the Great conquered Palestine in 332 B.C.E.
� Alexander the Great � אלכסנדר מוקדן � king of Macedonia, conqueror of the Persian Empire. Meeting with the Jews � sources are Josephus, and the Talmud. Alexander dreamed of the high priest and when Alexander saw him, he bowed to him; his servant asked why, and he answered that he had seen the priest in a dream. The priest brought him to the Temple, prepared sacrifices, and read from the Book of Daniel.
� ט�ריקובר has some problems with the story:
1. Contradiction in the sources
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Talmud |
Josephus |
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Name of priest |
שמעון הצדיק |
ידוע |
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Location of meeting |
אנטיפטריס |
ירושלים |
2. Greek historians never mentioned the meeting
3. Timing and his direction don�t make sense
4. It says the soldiers were כשדים but Alexander didn�t conquer בבל yet!
5. אנטיפטריס wasn�t called by this name until תקופת תנאים
6. The servant asked why Alexander bowed and not the opposite; but the custom of bowing to Alexander had not yet been established!
7. The Book of Daniel had not yet been written (according to ט�ריקובר, not us)
� ט�ריקובר agrees that:
1. Alexander the Great did meet with the high priest, the leader of the Jews
2. During this period there was conflict among the Jews and the Samaritans
3. Alexander the Great gave the Jews religious freedom
� Hellenism � הליניזם � a synthesis of Greek culture with the native cultures of the Near East; it was an ever-evolving culture, a mixture of the East and the West (spread by Alexander�s soldiers � the soldiers brought an emphasis on physical beauty, sports, and the names of the Greek gods; the East contributed a love of money, and mysticism, superstition, etc.)
� Gymnasium/ephebion � institutions of the polis � cultural centers.
� Polis � the Greek city, center of cultural life � included institutions such as the gymnasium, ephebion, and theater; everybody who lived there had citizenship. The most important polis was Alexandria, where the first library was built.
� Diadochi Period � תקופת הדיודוכי (323-301 B.C.E.) � Alexander�s empire is split up � תלמי controls Egypt, סלקוס controls Syria; Palestine changes hands very often.
� Ptolemaic Dynasty � בית תלמי
� Seleucid Dynasty � בית סלקוס � capital in Antioch (אנטיוך); made a new calendar, called מנין שטרות.
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מנין שטרות |
לוח הנוצרים |
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0 |
312 B.C.E. |
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312 |
0 |
� תלמי II פילדלפיוס � built a large library in Alexandria, and wanted to include the Torah of the Jews [see תרגום שבעים].
� כתבי זנון �administrative documents from the archives of an Egyptian finance minister, describing Palestine under the role of Ptolemy II Philadelphus.
� תרגום שבעים � the translation of the Torah into Greek � 72 elders were placed in different rooms and told to write the translation; miraculously, each translation was identical. (�קשה יום תרגום שבעים כיום שבו חטאו בעגל� � the calf was the medium between the Jews and G-d; the translation was the medium between the original language and the nation � it is impossible to capture the essence of the original work in a translation.)
� אגרת אריסטיאס � a source of תרגום שבעים � it was forged; it describes the joy of the Egyptian Jews on the day of the translation (they did not know Hebrew that well, and needed the translation).
� Oniad II � חוניה II � the high priest during the rule of תלמי � he had an argument with the king with regard to the collection of taxes (prostasia).
� Tobiad � יוסף בן טוביה � a relative/rival of חוניה � appointed as tax collector for the country. [We see a common theme � Jews are their own worst enemies.]
� Gerousia � גרוסיה � the Jewish representative body during the Hellenistic Age, may be a forerunner of the Sanhedrin. Gerousias also existed in the Diaspora. They included both priests and lay leaders.
� Simeon the Just � שמעון הצדיק � the high priest and head of the Gerousia; he was a supporter of בית סילקוס.
� אנטיוכוס III � conquered Jerusalem and was on good terms with the Jews there, who helped him chase away the Egyptians, and greeted him with a lavish reception. During the war, many Jews had left Jerusalem; אנטיוכוס III promised to rebuild the city and return those who had fled. He also promised the Jews the right to live according to חקי האבות, a precedent set by Alexander the Great.
� אנטיוכוס VI אפיפנוס � [see גזרות אנטיוכוס].
� חוניה III � had supported בית תלמי, and was denounced to the Seleucids. He went to Antioch to exonerate himself, but in the meantime, אנטיוכוס VI אפיפנוס became king, and unconvinced of his loyalty, forced him to remain in Antioch.
� Jason � יסון � Onias III�s brother; he bought the priesthood from אנטיוכוס, overthrowing his brother. He did not force the Jews to worship עבודה זרה, but did build a gymnasium in Jerusalem, and wanted the Jews to participate. He wanted Jerusalem to become a polis, because living in a polis provides citizenship and economic advantages.
� גזרות אנטיוכוס (166-167 B.C.E.) � forbid keeping שבת, כשרות, and circumcision.
-According to Polybius, אנטיוכוס was mentally unstable
-Perhaps he had a love for Hellenistic culture and עבודה זרה
-Perhaps he wanted to strengthen his empire through religion � unity was important in order to defend the empire from Rome
-According to ט�ריקובר- the rebellion came first, אנטיוכוס retaliated with גזירות
-According to Bickerman (ביקרמן), the גזירות came first � מתיונים חצוניים (Jews) asked for the גזירות � they thought this would solve anti-Semitism.
� Antioch � אנטיוך בירושלים � in effect, Jason turned ירושלים into a polis, renaming it Antioch; residents of a polis gain citizenship and economic advantages.
� בני חוניה � traditional Jews � מפלגה מסורתית
� בני טוביה � moderate Hellenizers � מתונים (did not worship עבודה זרה)
� שמעון, מנלאוס, ליסמיקס � extreme Hellenizers � they do not have any connection to the כהונה, and were עובדי עבודה זרה. Simeon told the king that the treasury of the Temple was full of money (the king needed money to fight the Romans). Heliodorus was sent to get the money; a miracle occurred and he was pushed off his horse; although he survived, he was too frightened to take the money.
� מנלאוס � bought the high priesthood from Antiochus. מנלאוס placed idols in the Temple, and had חוניה killed. The Jews were very discontent, and when they heard a rumor that Antiochus died in battle with the Egyptians, they rebelled against מנלאוס. Jason returned to reclaim his position, but was chased away too.
� אפולוניוס � the Seleucid general that built the Akra.
� Akra � חקרה � a fortress at the center of Jerusalem; a Hellenistic garrison was stationed there to control the situation, but only led to further opposition.
� Katoika � the soldiers that were stationed at the Akra.
� חסידים � the earliest organized group of rebels � they fought against assimilation and for the right to live according to חקי האבות; they did not fight on שבת.
� מכבים א� ומכבים ב� - מכב"י = מי כמוך באלים ה� orמכבי = hammer . Most historians prefer מכבים א� because it is a primary source, whereas מכבים ב� is a summary by Jason of Cyrene; מכבים א� includes more, while מכבים ב� focuses on יהודה המכבי; and finally, מכבים א� is more organized than מכבים ב�.
� מתתיהו ובניו � priest of Modiin; refused to submit to the persecutions; he rallied the rebels around him � �מי לה� אלי� � fled to the mountains (guerilla warfare).
� יהודה, יוחנן, שמעון, אלעזר, יונתן � led the rebels, and together with the Hasidim, began to take control of villages throughout the countryside, and had soon taken control of all of Judea. [The חסידים were fighting for religious freedom. The חשמונאים were also fighting for political freedom.] Advantages (יתרונות) � they know the lay of the land, are motivated to fight, and have a strong leader. Disadvantages � the Seleucids have more weapons, and the support of the גויים.
� כ"ה כסלו � In December 164 B.C.E. יהודה המכבי captured Jerusalem (although a Selucid garrison continued to hold the Akra) and on כ"ה כסלו he purified the Temple and reorganized the sacrificial cult to conform to the Jewish tradition.
� ליסיאס � Seleucid general; when he heard that אנויוכוס died, he wanted to return to Antioch and become king; therefore, he attempted to forge a treaty with the Jews � he repealed the גזירות of אנויוכוס VI, executed Menelaus, and appointed Alcimus as the high priest. [However, the חשמונאים continued to fight.]
� אלקימס � a moderate Hellenizer who was appointed by ליסיאס as the high priest; he was accepted by the Hasidim, who had achieved their goal � religious freedom. The חשמונאים continued to resist the rule of Alcimus.
� ניקונור � Seleucid general that was killed by יהודה on י"ג אדר � this day was declared a holiday called יום ניקונור.
� Bacchides � בקידיס - Seleucid general; Judah fell in battle against him, and יונתן took his place. Bacchides and יונתן fought for several years; finally they signed a treaty that gave יונתן, based at Michmash, control over most of Judea.
� דמטרויס ואלכסנדר בלס � civil war broke out among the two, who both wanted to become the King of the Seleucid Empire. They both turned to יונתן המכבי for support (תמיכה), making all kinds of promises. יונתן decided to give his support to אלכסנדר בלס, and they won. In return, יונתן was appointed to the office of high priest, and was allowed to maintain his army (an important symbol of political independence). Judea was now united under Hasmonean rule.
III. Hasmonean Dynasty (98-103)
� יונתן � expanded his territory beyond Judea to include southern Samaria and some southern coastal cities. Eventually a supporter of דמטריוס murdered him.
� שמעון � was recognized by the Seleucid king; a public assembly appointed him temporal ruler and high priest [there were some problems with this � although he was a priest, he was not from משפחת חוניה, and he did not come from שבט יהודה, so he could not be king�the sages that appointed him added the words �עד שיבא המשיח� � it was only a temporary measure�one of the descendants of חוניה was offended, left Judea, and built a Temple � it was not כשר, however]. Under Simeon�s leadership, the Jews no longer paid taxes (the final step in gaining total independence). They also minted coins that said �שמעון הנשיא� and �שנה א לגאולת ירושלים�. He conquered nearly all of Israel, continued the extirpation of paganism from the land, and finally conquered the Akra.
� יוחנן הורקנוס � hired mercenaries that worshipped עבודה זרה; they worked for him, not the nation. He expanded his territory, conquering the Idumeans (אדום) � forcing them to convert; he also conquered the Samaritans. He also continued the peace treaty with Rome that was originally signed by יהודה המכבי.
� �אל תאמין בעצמיך עד יום מותך� � יוחנן הורקנוס was a פרושי for 80 years, and towards the end of his life, became a צדוקי.
� יהודה ארוסטובלוס � the first to call himself by the title of �king�. Converted the Itureans to Judaism, and gained control of the Galilee. He was very paranoid, and feared his family � he treated his mother with cruelty and imprisoned three of his brothers. He married שלומית אלכסנדריה, who was suspicious of his younger brother, אנטיגנוס, and convinced ארוסטובלוס to kill him.
� אנטיגנוס � the name of the younger bother that was killed by יהודה ארוסטובלוס.
� אלכסנדר ינאי � one of the surviving brothers of יהודה ארוסטובלוס; married Aristobulus� widow, שלומית אלכסנדריה. He and John Hyrcanus together expanded the borders of Judea to encompass then entire land of Israel. אלכסנדר ינאי was a צדוקי, and found himself in conflict with a group called the פרושים (the traditional rabbis of Israel) � on סוכות, instead of pouring wine on the altar (מצות בית שואיבה), he poured it on his own legs � the פרושים became angry and stoned him with their אתרוגים. [Also see שמעון בן שטח.] אלכסנדר ינאי oppressed the פרושים, but immediately prior to his death, he regretted his actions, and told his wife and successor, שלומית אלכסנדריה, to act favorably towards the פרושים.
� שמעון בן שטח � the brother of שלומית אלכסנדריה; he was one of the leaders of the פרושים, and fled Judea because אלכסנדר ינאי wanted to kill him. He returned during the reign of his sister, and established many academies of learning.
� שלומית אלכסנדריה (שלומציון) � successor of אלכסנדר ינאי; during her reign the power of the פרושים reached its climax (שיא); it was a time of peace and good relations.
� ארוסטובלוס II והורקנוס II � the two sons of שלומציון; after she died, a civil war broke out � both wanted to be king. They both asked Rome for support, but פומפיוס conquered them both; he gave הורקנוס II the high priesthood, and imprisoned ארוסטובלוס II.
� פומפיוס � the general of Rome; he played the two brothers off each other, conquering Israel, and taking away the independence of the חשמונאים.
� 63 B.C.E. � the year that פומפיוס conquered Israel.
� Bickerman � ביקרמן � Maccabean Hellenism � the חשמונאים הראשונים were against all forms of Hellenism; the חשמונאים האחרונים, however, adopted some elements of Hellenism into Judaism. They understood that without a little bit of Hellenistic culture, Judaism would not be able to survive, because the world was becoming a different place. Some signs of Hellenistic culture were: names, coins with Greek words, catacombs, the concepts of תחיית המיתים and עולם הבא, of a תורה שבכתב ותורה שבעל פה, כתובות (in a wedding), etc.
IV. Sectarianism in the Second Commonwealth (103-119)
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Name |
Pharisees (perushim) |
Sadducees (Zadokim) |
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Origin of Name |
Perushim means separated. This refers to how the separated themselves from impure food and from the tables of the common people, who they called Am Ha-ares, since they were not careful with such things. |
They derived their name from the high priest of Jerusalem and Israel during the time of King Solomon, Zadok. |
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Origins |
Some say that they came from the Hasidim of the time of the Second Temple, during the era of the first Hasmoneans. Others say they were the descendents of the Men of the Great Assembly (Anshei K�neset Hagadol) |
They were supposedly the families of the priests and of the high priest, or those who had married into the family. The Zadokite priests presided over the Temple until the times when the Hasmoneans took over. |
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Place in Society |
They were the middle and lower classes, and being such, they did not come into the full influence of the Hellenistic culture. Though they might have adopted letters and words, they only followed what they viewed to be done by the forefathers. |
They were the upper class, and therefore they were the ones the most effected by the Hellenistic culture, and so they became the moderate Hellenists. |
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Teachings |
1. First and Foremost, they believed in what we call the �Torah She-Ba�al Peh�, or traditions of the fathers, or the oral law. They were the experts at the interpretation and were scrupulous at observing the laws. 2. They believed in the immortality of the soul. 3. They believed in reward and punishment after death. 4. They believed in angels. 5. They believed in Divine Intervention, that G-d plays a role in what man does. There were different laws: 1. Any witness who testified falsely would be put to death, if they were found out before their testimony could have the man testified against killed. If he was already killed, they were not put to death. 2. They believed that the Sadducees whole concept of purity was off, and would not go near their women as a result of what they believed to be a lack of menstrual purity. |
3. They rejected the �traditions of the fathers�, and for this reason the rabbinical sources depict them of rejecting oral law. (Shiffman believes they had their own oral law). They were said to only have accepted what was in the written Torah. 4. They did not believe in the immortality of the soul. 5. They did not believe in reward and punishment. 6. They did not believe in angels. 7. They did not believe in Divine Intervention There were different laws: 1. Any witness who testified falsely would be put to death, if the person he had testified against had already been put to death. 2. They believed the that the Pharisees were in consistent in their laws of purity, saying they only pertained to the Temple, not everyday life. |
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On Government |
It was split; One half maintained that if the government allowed them to practice the laws, it was alright. The other half said no non-Jewish Government was permitted. |
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In Politics |
Though in the beginning they tried to stay out of it, they were drawn deeper and deeper in. The Hasmonian kings were against them up to the time of Sh�lom Zion (the rivalry causing some to believe on their �Hasidic Origins�). During her reign, they had their highest point in politics. |
They seemed to be on the top of things during the majority of time, in politics. They were only the underdog group during the time of Sh�lom Zion. |
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On Religion |
It was said earlier that they completely controlled the religious observations which were held in the Temple, though now proof from the Dead Sea Scrolls question this theory somewhat. It is known, however, that even the Sadducees bent to them on religious matters, though they had different philosophies. |
See the Pharisees |
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Other |
- Josephus stresses that they were the most well liked sect during his time. - It is believed that Jews today are descendants of the Pharisees, rather than any other sect. |
- Shiffman holds the concept that the Dead Sea Sect were the Sadducees |
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Name |
Boethusians |
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Origin and Origin of Name |
They were said to have come from the High Priest Simon ben Boethus, who was appointed high priest by Herod so Herod could marry his daughter. However, sources in the Dead Sea Scrolls argue for an earlier date. |
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Religious Disputes |
They seemed to have similar views as the Sadducees. They had disputes with the Pharisees. An important one: - The Boethusians held that the first offering on the Omer was to take place on a Sunday, rather than the second day of Passover, since the Torah says �on the morrow of the Sabbath�. To insure it was observed on the correct day of the week, a solar calendar was adopted, like the one from the Dead Sea Sect. - The Pharisees held that the �Sabbath� here meant festival. They would not accept the notion of a Solar Calendar (they had a lunar-based one), nor the literal explanation of the phrase. |
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So what do I have to know about them? |
They had a Solar Calendar. |
Apocalyptic And Ascetics
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Name |
Essenes |
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Origin of Name |
They were known for the piousness and were named such. Syriac � �hase�� � Pious Aramaic � �asaia� � Healers Greek � �hosios� � Holy Hebrew � �hasa�im� � Silent Ones However, the most recent theory is that their name was borrowed from the designation of a group of devotees of the cult Artemis in Asia minor, because their actions and dress somewhat resembled those of these people. |
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Sources & Location |
Until recently, the only information we could find about the Essenes seemed to be from Philo and Josepus. They reported them to live somewhere along the west side of the Dead Sea. This prompted for the scholars to hold the Essenes as the Dead Sea Sect, once the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. |
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Upon Entering the Sect |
Only an adult male could enter. He would have to swear �fealty� to the officials. (Any member who transgressed could be expelled from the community.) The process went like this: They would receive a hatchet, an apron and a white garment, and had to undergo a detailed initiation process, including a year of probation. Then they would be ritually washed, and they would go another two years of probation, and they would then swear an oath, which was the only oath the Essenes permitted. The Oath: |
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Practices |
- They practiced Communal Property. All members shared equally. - Members would tae work in agriculture and crafts to gain money for the sect. Commerce and the creation of weapons were avoided. - There were places in each town for Essenes to eat, and these same places took care of the poor. - They avoided luxury and excess wealth. - They practiced chastity after they had had children. - They believed greatly in ritual purity. Ablutions (cleansing) were not only required before meals, but also after using the bathroom, or making contact with a nonmember or novice. They were strict about being ritually clean during natural bodily processes, and cleansing themselves afterwards. - They dressed in white, and extremely modestly. |
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Teachings |
- They believed in unalterable destiny. - They studied the Bible allegorically - They were stringent in Sabbatical observance. - They were reported to be experts on medical roots and properties of stones with �healing powers�. - They believed in immortality of the soul. - They believed in an Apocalypse, an end of days. |
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Towards the Temple |
They were of two minds. On one hand, they agreed to there being a place of central worship for the Jews. On the other, they believed the rituals and purity practiced therein were incorrect. |
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What do I have to know about them? |
The most important things are their Practices and Teachings, but try to know everything else as well. |
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Name |
Dead Sea Sect |
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Origin of Name, and of Study |
One of the most stunning findings of the 20th century was discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. They seemed to dictate the religious teachings of a sect in the area, and thus, the cult, whomever they might be (we�ll get into that later), was called the Dead Sea Sect by modern historians. |
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Origin |
According to the sect itself, it came into existence when the first members decided to separate from the �corrupt� Judaism in Jerusalem. |
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Practices and Teachings |
- There was an elaborate initiation procedure, lasting several years - Members were expected to live according to detailed laws - Annual covenant-renewal ceremonies - According to the Qumram sect (the scrolls were found in the caves of Qumram), there would be an end of days, which was coming close in their times, where two messiahs, a Davidic Messiah and Priestly Messiah, would restore the order of things. - They were celibate (chastity) - They maintained a Solar Calendar |
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Who were the Dead Sea Sect |
According to Most Scholars: It is easy to see why so many scholars believe that they were the Essenes. - Both groups had initiation processes which took years to complete and they were quite similar, although according to the sources, the processes were slightly different. - Both ate communal meals, though the Dead Sea Sect seemed to do it less than the Essenes. - They lived in the same area, at the same time ( we found the time due to carbon dating). - They both held property in common, though according to the Essenes it was owned by all, and by the Dead Sea Sect, it was privately owned. According to Shiffman: There are things that just don�t work together, and seem to point off in a different direction. - The word �Essene� or any of equivalents doesn�t show up in the Dead Sea Scrolls, while the words �Sons of Zadok� does many times, linking the sect with the Sadducees. - There are small differences in the texts describing the Essenes and the Dead Sea Scrolls, like the ones mentioned above. - Also, there is no distinct proof that the Essenses were Apocalyptic - There is no proof that they had a Solar based calendar.
However, the scholars who hold that they are, indeed, the Essenes, say these subtle differences were due to that Philo and Josephus were writing for the Romans, and had to alter things such as the apocalypticism. Also, Josephus mentions that there were subtle differences between the different Essene groups. So it is possible that this Dead Sea Sect was simply one of the groups of the Essenes. |
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What do I have to know about them? |
What is most important to know is the argument on which sect they were, and as much information to back up it up in an essay. Also know the history of the Dead Sea Scrolls, how they were found in a cave in Qumram, and how they were one of the biggest finds recently. |
V. Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea Scrolls (120-137)
� Apocrypha � the books which are found in the Hellenistic Jewish Bible canon of Alexandria, Egypt (preserved by the Christian church in the Septuagint), but not in the Palestinian Jewish canon.
� Pseudepigrapha � books ascribed by their authors to ancient biblical heroes, usually concerning eschatological salvation and a supernatural world.
� Examples � recognize these names: Tobit � טוביה, Judith � יהודית, Greek Esther, Susanna, ברוך, בן סירא, חכמת שלמה ,חנוך, מכבים א� וב�, ספר יובלת, אגרת אריסטיאס.
� Jubilees � יהודית � typical of the genre of rewritten Bible � it is a reworking of biblical history from the start of Genesis until the commandment of Passover, biblical heroes are pictured as observing Jewish law.
� בן סירא � it is a �wisdom text� - it provides practical advice on interpersonal relations, the conduct of business, and a variety of ethical teachings. The wisdom comes from G-d, and the Torah. בן סירא is the only one to be specifically mentioned in the Talmud.
� מכבים א� וב� - see above.
� אגרת אריסטיאס � see above.
� קומרן (168 B.C.E. � 66-73 C.E.) � an area near the northern end of the Dead Sea; a sect of Jews lived there during the Greco-Roman period and collected a set of scrolls, which were hidden in ancient times and rediscovered in 1947.
� The מגילות included: ספרי תנ"ך, Apocrypha, and מגילות הכת
� מגילות הכת: פשרים, Damascus Document (Zadokite Fragments), Manual of Discipline (rules of the community), Thanksgiving Scroll, Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness, Temple Scroll, מקצת מעשה התרוה
� פשרים � the sect�s biblical commentaries; they believed that they were living during the era of the coming of the משיח, and that they were fulfilling the prophecies of the Bible.
� Damascus Document � Zadokite Fragments � were found in the Cairo genizah (גניזת קהיר) by Solomon Schechter.
� מקצת מעשה התורה � the �Halakhic Letter� � it was written in the form of a letter from the leaders of the sect to the Jews in Jerusalem, outlining the disagreements over Jewish law and Temple practice that had caused the sectarians to secede. The text indicates that there were close connections between the founders of the sect and the צדוקים, and demonstrates that vies attributed to the פרושים controlled the actual practice in the Jerusalem Temple in the time of the חשמונאים.
VI. Judaism in the Hellenistic Diaspora (80-96)
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Exiled in: |
Babylon |
Egypt |
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Origin |
They were those Jews who had a comfortable life in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, and did not want to move down to Israel to help in the rebuilding of the Temple. |
The Elephantine, or the group of Jews that were part of a military order that married in with the natives of Egypt, and set up a community there. |
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Sources |
Murashu Tablets: These were the records of a prominent Jewish banking family, which mentions numerous Jews and makes reference to the Jewish businesses in Exile. |
The Elephantine Papyri: They were letters and business documents made out of the reed which grew from the Nile river. |
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Important Facts |
- Jews had privileges in the community, like the right to take army leave during holidays. - The Jews used the Seleucid Era as a means of counting years. This was a calendar that some Jews continued to use until the Middle Ages. - The Parthian Empire: They allowed for the indigenous people to practice their religion, and were said to have contact with the Hasmonean leaders. - Adiabene Kingdom: They were a noble family who converted to Judaism. Besides the Hasmoneans in Israel, they were the only Jewish nobility. |
- The first credited anti-Semitic book was accredited to a Egyptian priest named Manetho. He mentioned the Exodus, and how there were large amounts of Jews there, �then and now�. - The Temple of Onias: Onias was a legitimate successor, thought he would be High Priest after Menelaus, and he left when he was not chosen. When he got down to Egypt, he created a military colony, and established a temple. - As a result of Onias� support for Cleopatra, wife of Ptolemy VI, Ptolemy VII led the first every porgroms against the Jews. |
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What do I have to know about this? |
Know everything, especially the Adiabene, the calendar and the sources. |
Know the sources, the anti-Semitic book, and the Temple of Onias. |
G-d Fearers � These were a group of people that did not completely convert to Judaism, but they did attend the synagogue, and abstained from eating pork. They did not consider themselves to be Jews, and the Jews did not consider them to be Jews. However, the fact that there were so many of them constituted a fact that the Jews were looked up upon in those days. (This would all change with the rise of Christianity).
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Developments & Privileges |
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Political |
- Politeuma: This was a political body, the Jewish communal organization. - Katoikia: Again a body of residents within the city of the designation for a separate settlement. - Synagoge: This was a community, and the reason the buildings today are called synagogues is because that is what the building where the community met was. It was the central building, providing faculties for education, dispensing justice, the lodging of visitors, and of course, was a place of worship. They were found all over during the Diaspora. Note � Everything above required royal permits. - Gerousia: These were the heads of the Jewish communities. |
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Social |
Jews had many privileges in the Hellenistic and Roman eras. - They were exempt from worshipping the local deity, although they lived in the city. - They were excused from court or office on Sabbath. - Jewish Military units were exempt on Sabbath. - They were permitted to send money to the Temple in Jerusalem |
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Economy |
Jews were artisans and farmers, not merchants and money changers as they would be later on. Some owned small farms, others worked as tenants. One other position they held was tax collector, since Jews were artisans and farmers, not merchants and money changers as they would be later on. Some owned small farms, others worked as tenants. One other position they held was tax collector. |
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Religious |
- They were allowed to keep the Sabbath - They were allowed to circumcise their babies - Synagogues were found all over the place, some cities even having more than one. - They celebrated the new moons. - It is unsure what language they would pray in, however it is thought that majority was done in the main languages of where they lived, the majority of this being Greek, the main language of the Hellenistic era. There were other times they imitated the services of the Holy Temple. |
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Anti-Semitism |
Reasons: Economic and Social aspects. - The Jews were regarded as being superstitious, and having disgraceful beginnings. - Jews enjoyed many, possibly more, privileges than their neighbors, and they were not members of the polis (large city of those times), that they lived in. - Jews were the tax collectors. - The first blood libels � they said that Jews sacrificed a foreigner every seven years for ritualistic purposes. |
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What do I have to know about this? |
Know everything political, all those terms, especially the synagogue. Knows the jobs they held, and know they were NOT merchants. Have a descent idea of some social privileges. |
Septuagint (The Targum Shi�viim) � While the library of Alexandria was being built, Ptolemy II Philadelphus brought 72 elders, and commanded them to translate the Bible into Greek. The �miracle� was that all the elders gave the exact same translation of the Bible, word for word.
It is compared to the Sin of the Golden Calf in its effect on the Jewish people, because when one translates the Bible, he looses some of its essence, and its true power to effect they was we live and the way we think.
When the people in the Elephantine in Egypt heard about the translation, they rejoiced, as they had forgotten Hebrew, and now they could learn the Bible from this new translation.
However, it was changed slightly, because there were things in it that the Greeks might look at in the wrong way. Even though, the non-Hebrew speaking Jews still studied from it, in an attempt to continue their tradition through the exile.
Philo Judaus ( the Alexandrian) � He was a Jewish historian and philosopher who tried to blend the cultures of the Greeks with the cultures of the Jews. After being the emissary of the Jews after the riots, he turned to be a philosopher. He blended the deities of the Greek and G-d, to create what he called the �Supreme G-d�. He wrote many books explaining the Bible, including On the Creation, which showed the Fathers as embodiments of the virtues, Life of Moses, in which he casts Moses as the Supreme Lawgiver and Judge, as well as other books.
He viewed the Bible as both literal and allegorical. When he could not understand, or did not like, the literal translation, he went for the allegorical. He viewed the soul as descending to Earth, and in order to go back up to G-d, one would have to strip himself of all Earthly matters.
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What do I have to know about these things? |
You should know everything about the Septuagint, and know the basics, if not more, about Philo Judaus. It would be a good idea to go back into the book to read about Philo, because he might come up on an essay, with Josephus. |
VII. Judea under Roman Rule & the Jewish-Christian Schism (139-156)
� Synhedroi � the governmental structure of Judea was reorganized into five administrative districts, to destabilize the nation and make resistance difficult.
� הורקנוס II � high priest; he is appointed �ethnarch� (rubberstamps everything) by Julius Caesar, who also restored certain territory to Judea.
� Antipater - אנטיפטר � an אדומי whose father had been forcibly converted to Judaism; he became the advisor of הורקנוס � he had the real power. He appointed his sons as governors - Herod (הורדוס) over the Galilee (גליל), and Phasael (פסאל) over Jerusalem.
� הורדוס בגליל � he would kill Jews without giving them a trial, calling them �robbers� � among them was a man named חזקיהו הגלילי. Herod was summoned to a trial by the סנהדרין. He came with soldiers and only the intervention of his father prevented him from taking revenge on the Sanhedrin.
� עבד האדומי � the Jews hate Herod, calling him the Idumean slave � they did not view him as a full Jew.
� Antipater is poisoned, leaving the fate of Palestine open�Antony is now Caesar, and although he receives complains about Herod, he leaves him alone.
� הפרתים � in 40 B.C.E. הפרתים, allied with אנטיגנוס II (son of ארוסטובלוס II), conquered Judea and reasserted Hasmonean rule. הורקנוס II was captured, and his ear was maimed, to disqualify him as כהן גדול. Herod fled, gathered support in Rome, and returned to Judea and conquered it again; he is named king.
� ארוסטובלוס III � was appointed high priest by Herod (to gain the support of the פרושים) � once Herod realized his popularity, Herod had him killed.
� Mariamme � מרים � sister of ארוסטובלוס III; married Herod, later killed her.
� Antony � Herod originally supported him in the Roman civil war; in the middle Herod switched sides, supporting Octavian (Augustus Caesar), who in return confirmed Herod in office and returned the territories taken by Cleopatra.
� הנבטים � Herod�s war with the Nabatean Arabs ended in victory, but his army suffered great casualties.
� That same year, an earthquake killed about 30,000 people, and Herod undertook massive relief works in the aftermath.
� קיסריה � built by Herod on the seacoast; intended as a shipping post.
� Cleopatra � persuaded Antony to giver her possession of certain territories in Herod�s kingdom; Herod cleverly arranged to lease back his own land.
� שיפור בנין המקדש � Herod�s most impressive project; rebuilt the Temple.
� Herod also built many fortresses, and refortified Massada (he sent his family there). Herod also built temples to pagan gods (in non-Jewish areas).
� Herod made some changes in the Sanhedrin � he placed גויים in the Sanhedrin, and killed some of the members that didn�t agree with his views; also, in those days the official language of the Sanhedrin was Greek.
� Herod introduced changes to the priesthood, as well � he killed ארוסטובלוס III, and appointed a succession of various priests, one after the other.
� Herod died in 4 B.C.E. � he left an order that when he died, זקני ישראל should be killed � he did not want people to rejoice on the day of his death; however, the order was never carried out.
� Procurators � after Herod�s death, the Romans split his kingdom into 3; each part was ruled by one of Herod�s sons. Judea was soon reorganized into a Roman province, ruled by Roman governors, called procurators. The early procurators were wise and peaceful, the Jews were granted substantial autonomy � they were allowed to maintain their own courts, arrange for the collection of taxes, and have little interference in their religious lives.
� Pontius Pilate � the procurator who executed Jesus; with his appointment, conflict and bloodshed began, and relations deteriorated due to Roman insensitivity to Jewish religious requirements, high taxes, the stationing of troops in Jerusalem, and the belief of many Jewish sects that אחרית הימים had arrived.
� Caligula � the Roman Caesar; he commanded the Jews to erect an image of him in the Temple; the Jews were prepared to rebel, but Caligula died.
� אגריפס I � 41-44 C.E. � the grandson of Herod and Mariamme; he was appointed by Claudius (Emperor of Rome) as king of Israel. Agrippa loved his people and sought to restore the ancient glory of Israel. He enjoyed widespread support among the Jews, but when he unexpectedly died, the country was returned to the rule of the procurators, and conditions deteriorated.
� Florus � the last procurator of Israel before the outbreak of revolt; he stole money from the Temple to pay for the sewage system of the city.
� Jesus � ישו � we learn of Jesus from the New Testament, and from יוסף בן מתתיהו (this, however, is forged, and was actually written by Eusibius, a Christian priest) � he says that the Jews believed that Jesus was the משיח. Jesus is also briefly mentioned in the Talmud. Some sources say that Jesus was born in 4 B.C.E.; some say in Nazareth, while others say Bethlehem. He was influenced by John the Baptist; Jesus was a folk-healer; he emphasized מצוות בין אדם לחבירו. It is not clear if he believed that he was the son of G-d. According to the New Testament, he was captured by the Romans and imprisoned on ערב פסח; among his students was a traitor � יהודה איש קריות (Judas). According to the ברית החדשה, he was first brought to the Sanhedrin, and sentenced to death (problems with this story � the Sanhedrin did not meet on holidays; the Romans had gotten rid of the death penalty; the high priest wasn�t the leader of the Sanhedrin).
� יוחנן המטביל � John the Baptist � the teacher and inspiration of Jesus.
� The New Testament � הברית החדשה � the Christians believe that G-d made a new ברית with them, since the Jews did not accept Jesus. The Gospels: synoptic � Matthew, Mark, Luke � tell the story from a similar point of view and are similar in structure/non-synoptic � John. There are differences between the books that were written earlier and those which were written at a later date � the books eventually become more anti-Semitic as time goes on.
� מינים � ברכת המינים � after the destruction of the Temple, the rabbis standardized the Eighteen Berachot, and expanded an old prayer to include a curse against the minim � Jews with incorrect beliefs (the early Jewish Christinas) � rabbis wanted to alienate them from the synagogue.
� Paul � שאול � he convinced the church to formally open itself to gentile converts, and brought to it the notion of a mission to the gentiles. This sped up the split between Judaism and Christianity, as most Christians were now gentiles.
� הקרע בין היהדות והנצרות - the early Jewish Christians observed the laws of Judaism but accepted the messiahship of Jesus. They were seen by the rabbis as Jews, although they were alienated from the synagogues (see ברכת המינים); other types of interaction (e.g. commerce) with them were prohibited by the rabbis, as well. Then, however, Paul opened Christianity to take place, and the majority of the members of the church were not Jews from the point of view of הלכה. At this point, the rabbis started to view the Christians as the �other�; not as Jews who had gone astray. This process was complete by the Bar Kokhba period, when Gentile Christianity became the norm. At this point, the rabbis outlawed the writings of the Christians, declaring that Torah scrolls or texts with divine names copied by Christians had no sanctity. The schism can be traced in the Gospel texts � the earlier texts portray Jesus as debating issues of Jewish law with the Pharisees, and no hostility is apparent; with time, the texts move from disputes with Pharisees to polemics against the Jews, and the demonization of the Jewish people as a whole. By the 5th century, much anti-Semitic legislation had been enacted; Jews were forbidden to build synagogues and to study the oral law; they were said to be Christ-killers, and anti-Judaism was the norm in Christian preaching. Even groups within the Christian church were persecuted for being �Jewish-Christians� (they were gentiles who sought to observe Judaism because they believed in the continued authority of the Old Testament).
� According to Schiffman, it is integral to study the rise of Christianity against the sectarian setting of the time. The difficult economic and political situation in Judea during the career of Jesus and in the period of the emerging church tended to encourage the rise of religious movements; in addition, the multiplicity of sects and movements in Second Temple Judaism provided a rich legacy which could serve as the basis for the Christian apocalyptic movement. According to Schiffman, Christianity began as merely another Jewish sect, believing that they were living in אחרית הימים, and that Jesus was the משיח.
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The Great Revolt |
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Contributing Causes |
There were two main reasons for the great Revolt. The Maccabean Uprising � Since the Maccabean revolt, many Jews had fought against foreign domination. Remember that the Maccabees fought, not for religious freedom, but for total political independence, and the feeling still stayed among their descendents Messianism � There is evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls, that throughout the time of the Second Temple, people believed that the Messianic time was near. They looked forward to the independent state so mentioned in the Books of the Prophets. Many of the people and leaders who took part were motivated by Messianic expectations. |
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Immediate Cause |
The procurator at the time, Gessius Florus displayed disrespect for the Jews� religious judgments in a series of acts. In response, the priests in the Temple stopped the sacrifice for the Emperor, an act seen equivalent to declaring revolt. Though King Agrippa II, the leading priests and some Pharisees tried to stop it, the Great Revolt was already begun. |
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The Jewish Strategy |
Military commanders were assigned to specific places around Israel, to prepare for Roman attack. One of these was Josephus, who commanded the forces in the Galilee. These commanders fought for power with semi-messianic leaders, which lead to a division in forces. There were several groups: - Sicarii � (Latin, sica) They were known years before for having assassinated Roman associates with knives they concealed under their clothes. - The Followers of Simeon bar Giora � They believed him to be a messianic figure, and not only did they fight against the Romans, but other groups as well. - The Zealots � They were those groups who had been struggling against even before the rebellion. These groups combined for the rebellion. |
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The Roman Strategy |
Emperor Nero appointed the general Vespasian to lead the attack on Judea. Vespasian, and his son, Titus, took three legions and auxiliary forces, and went to crush the rebellion. |
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The Reason for Loss |
- The Jews could not get their act together, and the splitting of their forces was one reason that they lost. - However, even if they had combined their forces, it was soon apparent that they were no match for the power of Rome. |
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The Losses |
- The Galilee was lost right at the beginning, Josephus surrendering. In reaction, some groups who did not have Josephus at their head moved South to help defend Jerusalem. - Civil strife between groups broke out in Jerusalem, and Nero died. For these reasons, Vespasian waited before he mounted an attack. When news came that he was emperor, he let his son, Titus, handle the attack from there, and he went back to Rome. On Passover, 70 C.E, the Roman army attacked Jerusalem. They burnt down the Temple, though some say it was not Titus� original intention to do so, and slaughtered thousands. - The final hold up against the Romans was Masada. After all the people on the top of Masada killed themselves, rather than surrender to the Romans, the last resistance was crushed, and Roman coins were started, stating �Judea has been captured�. |
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The Aftermath |
The Jews were forced to changed their lifestyle in many ways as a result of the destruction of the Temple. - Religious � There was a large religious crisis after the destruction of the Temple. The sources were shy about writing what occurred in those years after it. However, we have proof in tannaitic sources that many changes occurred in the religion and its practice. Some practices, like animal sacrifice, were replaced with prayer, and other practices were moved to the home or the synagogue. Examples are the Passover Seder instead of the ritual sacrifice, and the bringing of 7 days of the Sukkoth festival to pertain to all, not just the temple. Tithes and priestly dues were modified. According to some sources, since some people believed that the connection of the Jews with G-d was permanently disrupted, they stopped some practices as staying from wine and meat, and the joy in weddings stopped as well. (Read the book to learn more.) - From the Temple to the Synagogue � G-d had said that he will dwell among the Jews, but without a Temple, they did not know where. At about this time, the synagogue truly became the house of prayer. We remember that it had been around earlier, during the Hellenistic period, where it had served as somewhat of a community center, so they were already well established in their towns. Rites that could not be performed in the Temple anymore were moved there (not ALL). From that time on, it would be known as a �Temple in miniature�, and would replace the central sanctuary in Jerusalem. - The Authority of the Rabbis � After the destruction of the Temple, most of the sects were disassembled. The Sadducess lost their power when the Temple had been destroyed. The Romans had come in and wiped out the Essenes and other sects who lived in the Dead Sea area. However, the Pharisees, who at the beginning had tried to turn the rest of the Jews from the rebellion, lived on almost intact. (The Essenes, however, seemed to somehow contributed to the tradition to the medieval Karaites, but that is still rather minimal). The Romans, saw some of the rabbis, like R� Yohanan ben Zakkai, as leaders they would deal with. (He was the one who had told Vespasian that he would be crowned emperor when Nero died. He had asked for the city of Yavneh in return for this information, as well as the right to bring several Jewish Rabbis with him, thereby saving Jewish tradition). The Romans gave them the right as leaders, and a council was formed. The people at the time not only viewed the Rabbis as their civil leaders, but their religious leaders as well. And with people like Rabbi Gamliel, the leadership was firmly established and recognized. |
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What do I have to know about it all? |
Know the reasons for the revolt, and know its outcome. Also, know all the names involved in the actual revolution, and know the date the Temple was destroyed. |
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Josephus: Historian of the Revolt (IX) |
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His life |
Josephus was born to a priestly family, and he acquired an excellent education, learning about all the different sects in their schools, and with a hermit named Bannus. He was a general in the Great Revolt (as mentioned beforehand), and he was the first to surrender at the Galilee. At that point, he took the side of the Romans, claiming that only some form of agreement could end the war, and save the Jews and Temple. He went to Rome after the war, and received from the Emperor a place to live, citizenship, pension and lands. |
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Remember: |
- Most of his works were not his own. They were compiled from other literature, including some Jewish materials, documentary evidence, and the works of some historians from the Ancient times. - He had to write in such a way that he could demonstrate to the Jews that living under the Romans was not all that bad, and convince the Romans that the war had been brought about by a minority, and did not reflect the attitude of the people. |
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His Books |
The Jewish War � This was a book that tried to show the people of Rome that the Revolt was brought upon by a minority of the Jewish population, and that it did not reflect the attitude and feelings of the majority. He also tried to show that he was not one to blame for its failure. Antiquities � This was to show the Roman populous the ancient history of Judaism in the Greco-Roman era, thereby proving its legitimacy to exist. Against Apion � He wrote this to respond to the Anti-Semitism. He tried to show that Jews did not set themselves apart from the rest of the human race by religion, nor practiced or believed in ridiculous things that people often attributed to them. Josippon � This was a rendition of his works that was passed around in the Medieval times, a medieval Hebrew translation of a Latin version. (The Latin version, however, left out key things, as some of it did not seem to go with Christianity.) |
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What do I have to know about him? |
Know all his books, the reasons he wrote them, and enough information to answer the question whether he was a rebel or a realist. |
Trajan � He was the Emperor of Rome when the Jews began to rise up against their non-Jewish neighbors in violent confrontation.
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The Bar Kokhba Revolt |
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Reasons |
Messianism � We see that the Jews still had the messianic yearnings, and it was this that was the main cause of the revolt. Of course there were Economic, Social and Political reasons as well, including a decline in the relations of the Jews and the rest of the Hellenistic world, but what finally led to the outbreak of the war, was a belief in the messianic future. |
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Emperor Hadrian & The Immediate Reasons for the Revolt |
- At the beginning of his reign, he supported the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem. The failure of this effort was another great disappointment. - He founded a city within Jerusalem itself, named Aelia Capitolina, where he erected a temple to the god Zeus. - It is said that he prohibited circumcision. Shiffman believes that it is probable that he gave these before the revolt. There are other scholars who believe it was like the acts given by Antiochus IV (Epiphanus), they were given after the uprising began. |
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Bar Kokhba |
Literally, Son of a Star, as the Bible in Num. 24:17 says that �A star shall go forth from Jacob�. His real name was Simeon bar Koshiba. Some supported him, some not. Those who did, saw him as a messianic figure. The war was a guerilla war, and it soon spread and the rebels captures Jerusalem. It is possibly that sacrifices were made again, and the fact that Bar Kokhba had a high priest (this information is from coins of the era.) made reference to the two messiahs mentioned by some Apocalyptic sects, like that of the Dead Sea Sect. Judea was divided into regions, with taxes collected by government officials. Bar Kokhba observed Jewish law, and documents confirm a relationship between him and tannaitic Judaism. However, Hadrion sent one of his finest generals to finish the war. Jerusalem was taken, with further settling by Jews prohibited. The last fort to fall was Betar. In the end, many Jews were massacred, and many rabbis killed. |
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Antininus Pius |
The next emperor, and he revoked practically all of Hadrian�s decree. Later, leaders such as R� Simeon ben Gamliel and R� Judah Ha�Nasi compiled the Mishnahs. With the exception of two decrees, the ban of conversion and the ban of Jews living in Jerusalem, life for the Jews went back to how it was before the revolt. |
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So what do I have to know about this? |
Know the reasons, Hadrian�s decrees, Bar Kokbha being a messianic figure and the significance of his name, as well as the fact that Antininus revoked Hadrian�s decrees. |
IX. Synagogues, Rabbis and Yeshivot
The Synagogues on Masada, Herodion and Gamla � These were synagogues that were made for prayer in the first century CE. They give proof that the synagogue for prayer was around before the destruction of the Temple, and show that they first were built in Judea.
Hillel � He was a great Tannai, and his students started one of the two most famous academies, or Yeshivot, Beit Hillel. Likewise, the students of Shammai started Bet Shammai. It is to be noted that although these two academies seem to have many arguments in the Talmud and Mishnah, they were no real fights amongst the groups. Rather, these were intellectual fights, but the students were kind towards each other. We shall see later that those from this family were the ones with the authority, both religious and civil.
Synagoge � This is Latin for community. Indeed, the Synagogue was a community building, having such functions as education and town meetings.
R� Simeon ben Gamliel I � It is to be noted that he had taken an active role in the Great Revolt, unlike other Pharisee leaders.
R� Yohanan ben Zaccai � The savior of Jewish knowledge as we know it. It was him who snuck of the city out during the Roman siege of Jerusalem and told Vespasian that he would be crowned emperor when Nero died. He had asked for the city of Yavneh in return for this information, as well as the right to bring several Jewish Rabbis with him. Yavneh became the center of Jewish knowledge and authority, and this is where the rabbis began to compile the Mishnah. He was also seen by the Romans as a leader that they could work with.
Amei Ha�Arez � This was the Pharisee�s term for the ordinary people, literally meaning �the people of the land�. The Amei Ha�Arez preferred the approach and personality of the Pharisees over the other sects, and followed them in the matters of religious practice.
R� Gamliel II � He was a descendent of the Hillelite family, and took authority over Yavneh after R� Yohanan ben Zaccai. It was him who began to compile the information for the Mishnah, discussing with his colleagues on what should go in. However, what he is most famous for is his efforts to keep the Mishnah without any arguments on any law. He believed that if there would be arguments within the Mishnah, different sects would re-emerge, and the Jewish people who be split like they were in the pre-Revolt era. There are several famous stories about how he pressed his authority upon his colleagues, until they all agreed with his decision. Without him, it is possible that Judaism would have not come together, and it might not have survived the Middle Ages.
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The Transition from Pharisees to Rabbis (Tannaim) |
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Group |
Pharisee |
Rabbi |
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Differences |
- They were only informally organized, loosely joined to teach Judaism the same interpretation at large. - They were not arranged at all - They traced their non-Biblical laws from �the tradition of the fathers� |
- They were formed to collect and transmit tradition (tanna itself means memorizer and reciter of traditions). - They belonged to Schools (Ex. Hillel and Shammai) - They traced their non-Biblical laws as �passed down from Moses on Sinai� |
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Reasons for Transition |
- The desire to gather traditions and standardize Judaism. - The academies were encouraged by the Romans. - The desire to collect and preserve traditions. |
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What do I have to know about all of this? |
Basically, know what each thing is, and how they interacted with each other. It is also important to know the differences and transition between Pharisee and Rabbi. |
X. Oral Law � Mishnah/Tosefta/Midrashim (177-200)
� שלשלת המסורה:
משה --> יהושע --> זקנים --> נביאים --> אנשי כנסת הגדולה --> שמעון הצדיק --> הזוגות
� זוגות � נשיא\אב בית דין
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אב בית דין |
נשיא |
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יוסי בן יוחנן |
יוסי בן יועזר |
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נתאי הארבלי |
יהושע בן פרחיה |
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שמעון בן שטח |
יהודה בן טבאי |
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אבטליון |
שמעיה |
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שמאי |
הלל |
� שמעיה ואבטליון were the teachers of הלל ושמאי � they lived during the reign of Herod, who respected them and their students (they stood up to Herod).
� הלל ושמאי were the bridge between the זוגות and the תנאים.
� There are many stories about the kindness and patience of Hillel � for example, a גוי came to him and asked him to teach him the entire Torah while standing on one leg � הלל answered, �מה דסני עליך לחבירך לא תעביד, ואידך פרושא זיל גמור� � do not do to your friend what you would not want done to yourself; the rest can be derived from this.
� הלל also created the פרוזבול, a government agency which encouraged giving out loans even as the שמיטה year neared (many Jews had stopped giving out loans because after the שמיטה year the loans were nullified).
� דורות התנאים:
� Generation 1 (10-90 C.E.): הלל ושמאי, רבי יוחנן בן זכאי, גמליאל I
� Generation 2 (90-130 C.E.): גמליאל II, אליאזר בן הורקנוס, רבי עקיבא, אלעזר בן עזריה, רבי חנניה בן תרדיון
� Generation 3 (120-140 C.E.): רבי מאיר, רבי שמעון בר יוחי, רבי שמעון בן גמליאל II
� Generation 4 (140-200 C.E.): רבי יהודה הנשיא
� Generation 5 (200-225 C.E.): גמליאל III
� סנהדרין � יבנה --> אושה --> בית שערים --> צפורי--> טבריה
� משנה � teaches us the laws, without mentioning the biblical source; רבי עקיבא first organized it by subject.
� מדרש � biblical exposition - פרשנות לתנ"ך; explains the biblical sources of the מצוות.
� הלכה � the actual laws � from the word �הליכה� � a way of life.
� אגדה � legends, stories, etc. � this part of the religion is non-obligatory. There are those that say that רבי עקיבא first separated הלכה and אגדה; others say that אנשי כנסת הגדולה were the ones who did this.
� ששה סדרי משנה � זרעים (ברכות, תרומות, בכורים, וכו), מועד (חגים, שבת), נשים (קדושין, גטין, עריות), נזיקין (בתי דין, דיני נזיקין), קדשים (קרבנות, בית המקדש), טהרות (טהרה\טומאה) � why are there extensive sections about the sacrifices and the Temple, if the משנה was organized after the destruction of the Temple? The answer is that although the Temple was destroyed, בני ישראל hoped to rebuild it.
� תוספתא � a type of ברייתא that is organized by subject; there are parts of it that are parallel to the משנה; it is a type of supplement to the משנה � hence the name �Tosefta� - it is uncertain whether the משנה or the תוספתא came first.
� ברייתא � any work which is found outside of the משנה � traditions which were included in the Tosefta and the tannaitic Midrashim and which found their way into the Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds.
� מדרשי הלכה � תנאים (the purpose was to take a הלכה and use פסוקים to show that the law had a בסיס in the Torah):
� מכילתא דרבי ישמעאל ודרבי שמעון בר יוחי
� ספרא (ויקרא)
� ספרא (במדבר, דברים)
� מדרשי אגדה � אמוראים (originated in the synagogues in Israel � the rabbis would give sermons called דרשות, in order to get people interested in the religion; one type of sermon would begin with a פסוק, and connect many different חדושים until the rabbi ended with the first פסוק of פרשת השבוע � this was called פתחתא - proem; another type would begin with a member of the congregation asking a random question, and the rabbi would have to think on his feet, basing his sermon on the question; מדרשי אגדה originated in these דרשות):
� בראשית רבה, ויקרא רבה, איכה רבה, אסתר רבה
� פסיקתא דרבי כהנא, שיר השירים רבה, רות רבה
� דברים רבה, פרקי רבי אליעזר, תנא דבי אליהו
� תנחומא, שמות רבה, במדבר רבה, פסיקתא רבתי
� פיוטים � religious poems � based in large part on midrashic teachings
� ליתורגיה � the text of the תפילות � became more standardized throughout the amoraic period.
� Miscellaneous:
� תורה למשה מסיני � the tradition of the tannaim was based on the concept of the two Torahs, oral and written, which had been given by G-d to Moses on Sinai. The two Torahs are complementary � both are needed to fully understand Judaism; they are of equal status and authority with one another. In addition, they were to be transmitted in the manner in which they were received � the oral torah was to be passed on orally, and the written torah � in writing. The concept of oral torah provided the basis for the assertion of continuity in Talmudic Judaism � rabbis believed that all later developments had already been commanded as part of the revelation at Sinai.
� Originally, the תורה שבעל פה was not written in order to preserve the flexibility, or גמישות, of the Torah. After the destruction of the Temple, Jews were scattered all over, and רבי יהודה הנשיא was afraid that the Torah would be forgotten; therefore, he wrote the משנה � �עת לעשות לה�, הפרו תורתיך�.
� The redaction completed by רבי יהודה הנשיא was only the end of a long process, which began as early as the Roman conquest of Israel in 63 B.C.E. and which gained a new impetus after the Bar Kochba Rebellion.
63 B.C.E. � 73 C.E. � הלל ושמאי\בית הלל ובית שמאי -->
After the destruction, moved to יבנה and other cities, used mnemonics, etc. -->
Added material according to literary style and the person who said it -->
Organized material by subject -->
Final redaction by רבי יהודה הנשיא
� רש"י says that רבי passed on the Mishnah orally.
� רמב"ם says that רבי actually wrote down the Mishnah.
� Sources of the redaction of the משנה: the Talmud itself, and אגרת רבי שרירא גאון � he answered the questions of Jews in the Diaspora about the redaction.
� Why was the version that was redacted by רבי יהודה הנשיא so widely accepted? A lot had to do with רבי�s personality � he was a good נשיא, and had the support of the nation and the Romans. It was said about him, �חוץ ממנו לא ראו תורה וגדולה במקום אחד מזמן משה רבינו �. He was compared to שמעון הצדיק, מרדכי and אסתר, etc. � this is how much he was loved.
� Goldberg article � outlines some of the basics of the Mishnah:
1. If the opinion is not attributed to a specific rabbi, it is usually the opinion of רבי מאיר or רבי עקיבא.
2. When there is an extended discussion, many different opinions are introduced.
3. רבי יהודה הנשיא preferred the opinion which was understood most easily.
4. The material is organized by subject.
5. We always see בחירת חמר with varied sources.
XI. Israel under the Byzantine Empire (201-213)
. Israel in the Hellenistic Era.
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The Decline of Hellenistic Judaism |
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Proving the previous strength |
- The God Fearers � The widespread existence of non-Jews who were drawn to the synagogue and Jewish practice shows that the Hellenistic Jewry�s way of life was appealing. |
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Reasons for Decline |
- As a result of the Revolt � The Jews lost many people in the revolts, as well as many lands. Even more so was how now their standing in the Greco-Roman world was declining, and they were seen more and more often as political or economic scapegoats. - It would have occurred anyway. It was hard to be both modern and Jewish during the era, and already there was a massive amount of assimilation. - The Rise of Gentile Christianity � At the beginning, Christianity was just another sect of the Jewish population, like the Pharisees or Sadducees were. However, it was under Paul�s influence that the Christian movement began to open up to the gentiles. Those God-Fearers were absorbed, as well as many others, including some Hellenized Jews. Also, as Christianity became more popular, Jews began to stop with their Hellenized ways, being that these were not the ways of the Christians, not them. |
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The Rise after Bar Kokhba |
After the Bar Kokhba revolt until the end of the leader R� Judah the Prince (Nasi), a period of peace and prosperity occurred. The period ended with the finishing of the Mishnah, on which case, the amoraim came to create Talmud. The period started off well. There was a good friendship between R� Judah the Prince and a high-ranking Roman whom literature refers to as Antoninius (who is either the emperor Marcus Aurelius, or some local official). These period of peace carried off to his successors. Judaism and its practices became legal in the empire once more. This is not to say that Jews were allowed in Jerusalem, did not have to pay a special tax, or were allowed to convert gentiles. However, these were the only restrictions placed on them. After time went by, an economic crisis occurred, forcing farmers into the cities, which caused more class distinction. Besides the splitting slightly in the Jewish community between the leader and the people, it was alright. |
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The Sharp Fall |
In 324, Constantine, the emperor of the Roman Empire, converted to Christianity, and the lives of the Jews changed. All the political and economic development they had made before that soon vanished. They were ruled by a religion that believed they had supplanted them, and accused them of deicide (the killing of a god). On top of that, the Jews were now a minority in Israel, being that Christians also viewed Israel as a holy land. During the next emperors� reigns, Anti-Semitic laws were beginning to be passed. Jews could not longer live among the gentiles, they could not bless their fields, they could not convert them, and all the penalties were strengthened. According to Christian theology at the time, this was all because they had rejected the messiahship of Jesus, and they must be kept low to see that Christians were the replacement as the people of god. They were persecuted in their own land, as Anti-Semitic laws combined with heavy taxes. It was not long before these pressures led them to rebel. |
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The Revolt |
One of the shorter ones in the Judaic history. They were put down quickly by the Romans, probably because they did not get aid from those Jews in Babylon, or from the high-class Rabbis. However, this time, there were not strict punishments afterwards, probably due to the Romans realizing that it was the oppression that caused them to act up. |
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Julian the Apostate |
The last break the Jews had was during the reign of Julian. He rejected the Christian faith, and took on paganism instead. He viewed as anyone who were not Christians as his allies, and the most important of these groups being the Jews (probably because he saw he needed them, for obvious geographical reasons, for his planned attack on Persia). He took away all the Anti-Semitic legislation, and he even corresponded with the current leader, Hillel II. However, the most important thing that Julian did was proposed to give Jerusalem back to the Jews, and to rebuild the temple, in order to disprove the Christian belief that they were living testimony to the folly of rejecting Jesus. Although the leaders of the Jews thought about it hesitantly, by the time Julian was attacking Persia, the building began. And soon thereafter, it abruptly ended when fire took hold to the construction. The Christians hailed it as a sign, though there is evidence that they had started the fire themselves. Julian was killed some time thereafter, and was replaced with a Christian emperor. |
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The Final Decline |
The laws were reinstated, and the Jews lived under Anti-Semitic conditions. The Christianization of Palestine is shown in the creation of churches and monasteries. In the fifth century, the Christians finally became the majority of Rome�s population, which lead to the Samaritan revolts. These revolts failed, probably due to the lack of economic and political resources, as well as the limited size of the community In 415, the current leader of the Jewish people, Gamliel VI, was tried with circumcising his Christian slaves, building synagogues, and making judgements in cases of Christians and Jews. This set off a process with led to the complete elimination of the Jewish patriarchate. In 425 CE, with the death of Gamliel VI, the Jews were not longer allowed a self-government. Through the years 451-527, things once again looked up for the Jews, as Christians concentrated on internal affairs. At this time, the beautiful synagogues with mosaic tiles were constructed. |
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Justinian |
However, it all stopped when Justinian came into power. Jews were again persecuted. - Jews were denied any official support - They were forbidden to hold office - They were forbidden to own Christian slaves - They were not accepted witnesses against Christians But most importantly, under Justinian, the persecution of Jews was now legal. This sparked from the resolution that the lowly position of the Jews was proof that Christianity was true. After several revolts, Jews were forced to convert to Christianity, on pain of death. It was easy to see how the Jews sided with the Persians in an attack, though they were clearly upset with their conquerors. When the Byzantine empire conquered the area back a few years later, they began to massacre Jews for siding with the Persians. By the time the Arabs overtook the area, there was only a small community. |
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What do I have to know? |
Know about the God-Fearers, the relationship between Antininus and R� Judah the Prince, the legislation against the Jews, Julian, the construction of the Temple and its end, 425 the end of self government in Israel with Gamliel VI, Justinian and his legislation. |
XII. Babylonian Jewry and the Talmud (214-238)
� הפרתים � conquered the Seleucids in Mesopotamia in 120 B.C.E. � they treated the Jews well, who also maintained good relations with the Hasmoneans.
� משפחת אדיבין � the royal family of Adiabene converted to Judaism.
� Some Jews in Babylonia gave financial support to the rebels during the Great Revolt and the Bar Kokhba Revolt; a few even went to Palestine to fight the Romans.
� Trajan �invaded the Parthian Empire; the Jews joined in the resistance against him at the same time that their brethren were engaged in the Diaspora Revolt.
� ריש גלותא � exilarch � leaders of Babylonian Jewry; sons of exilarchs were sent to studying the Land of Israel, and exilarchs sought to staff their courts with Palestinian-trained scholars.
� Sassanians/Zoroastrianism � the Sassanian dynasty conquered the Parthian Empire in 226 C.E. and sought to rule more directly, through an extensive bureaucracy, with government policies which were intended to advance the Zoroastrian religion. Therefore, there was a temporary suspension of Jewish self-government, and even some reports of anti-Semitic decrees.
� Shapur I � he granted tolerance and freedom to all religious groups, hoping to pacify his own citizens and strengthen his empire for war against Rome.
� Until the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia in 634 C.E., life for the Jews was a series of ups and downs; one king favored the Jews, while the next king would persecute them�
� אמוראים � explainers of the Mishnah (200-500 C.E.) � served the Jewish community as teachers and judges, giving guidance on matters of Jewish practice; senior scholars taught more junior scholars, who eventually became colleagues � the senior colleagues possessed �reshut� (the Babylonian equivalent of the Palestinian �semikhah�).
� �Schools� existed among the amoraim which had an inner hierarchy. There were usually no formal institutions in בבל, where the exilarch�s political authority was separate from the religious authority of the rabbis. In Palestine, however, the patriarchal academy served as the center of much amoraic activity.
� תלמוד בבלי וירושלמי � differences � by the 5th century, the development of the Palestinian Talmud was virtually arrested by the anti-Semitic legislation and the difficult situation faced by Jews of Palestine under the Byzantine Empire. In Babylonia, however, the development of the Talmud continued, and anonymous discussions called �setam� which weave together and interrelate all the earlier material, were intertwined in the text. Therefore, the Babylonian Talmud abouns in detailed logical debates. In addition, the Mishnah text which serves as the basis for the Palestinian Talmud differs in some ways from that used in the Babylonian Talmud. Since agricultural laws were still observed in Palestine, the Palestinian Talmud has extensive Gemara for tractates pertaining to agriculture; this material is not found in the Babylonian Talmud. For some reason, the sacrificial law of the order קדשים is found in the Babylonian Talmud but not in the Palestinian Talmud. Finally, the two Talmuds use different dialects of Aramaic, and employ different technical terminology.
� נהרדעא\פומפדיתא\מחוזא\סורא � the most important centers of amoraic activity in Babylonia. Samuel and Rav studied at Nehardea and Sura.
