Regents Review: Essay Topics

Essay #1: Empires/Civilizations-�Golden Age�

Rome�

Republic: the new form of government the Romans made where the people chose officials.

Senate: the most powerful governing body in the republic.

Patricians: upper class. (The senate was mostly made up of them)

Plebeians: farmers, workers, artisans, and traders. Made up most of the population. Had little power (lower class.) [Later on in the empire, they gained more power and were allowed t elect their own officials and serve in government jobs.)

Pax Romana: =�roman peace� the roman golden age that started with the rule of Augustus. He turned the republic in to an absolute monarchy. The Romans spread stability over a large part of the world. It lasted for 200 years.

Laws of the twelve tables: the plebeians said that they wouldn�t know what the laws were unless they were written down. So they displayed laws on 12 tablets in the market place.

Aqueducts: bridge-like stone structures that carried water from the hills to the cities.

            The Roman Empire started in 509 BC after driving out the Etruscans. In arts and architecture, they borrowed many Greek concepts in arts and architecture but instead of being simple their designs were �ornamented.� The empire had expanded a lot, which led to increased corruption, and a bigger gap between the rich and the poor. In law, they had a system of �innocent until proven guilty,� which is a system we use today. In engineering, they made aqueducts (see above). They also had good infrastructure and built many roads, bridges, and harbors. Trade: The Empire traded with Egypt for grain, Africa for ivory gold and lions, India for cotton and spices, and China for silk. They built roads that promoted trade and made the empire wealthy, as well as used the Mediterranean Sea, which was a �natural highway.� New coins were used to make trade easier.

The Roman army was strong and therefore able to conquer a lot of land. They treated conquered people well and let them keep their own government and customs, yet had to serve in the army and pay taxes to Rome. The emperor Augustus (Octavius) stabilized the government. He instituted a system of a good civil service to make sure that government officials were both well trained and well educated.

The empire started in Rome and spread throughout the Mediterranean, from Spain to parts of Asia Minor. It spread from modern France and in to parts of Britain.

The fall of the Roman Empire: over expansion of the empire, high taxes, and foreign invasions all weakened the empire. Diocletian, the emperor, split Rome in to two (2) separate empires. The western empire fell, but the eastern empire survived, and became the Byzantine Empire.

Greece�

Polis: also known as a city-state. It is made up of two parts. An acropolis on a hilltop, which included marble temples, and a main city protected by a wall on the ground below. The two most powerful city-states were Sparta and Athens.

Aristocracy: a government ruled by the landholding elite.

Direct democracy: a large number of male citizens took part in a daily running of the government. Women did not participate because they were thought to be inferior to men. Slaves did not participate either. Slaves had no political rights or social freedom. The direct democracy gave a greater number of people voice in the government than any other government of its time.

Hellenistic: a type of culture resulting from Alexander the Great�s conquests. It includes a blend of eastern and western influences.

Differences and similarities between the two most powerful city-states:

Philosophers: lovers of wisdom

• Socrates: developed the �Socratic Method� learning about beliefs and ideas by asking questions. He was put to death by the government.

• Plato: believed that the government should control the lives of people. Divided society into three classes; workers, philosophers and soldiers

• Aristotle: believed that one strong and good leader should rule. Believed that people learned through reason.

Literature: Greeks applied observation and logic to their writing of history.

Homer wrote epic poems that inspired many writers.

Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides wrote tragedies.

Herodotus wrote historical writing and is known as the father of history

Other writers also wrote comedies.

Art and architecture: reflected the ideas of beauty balance and order in the universe. Artists made lifelike and perfect statues and paintings. The style of columns in buildings is adapted from the Greek. The Parthenon is the most famous Greek building.

Science and math: Aristarchus, a scientist, discovered that the earth revolves around the sun on an axis. Archimedes explored the principles of the lever and pulley. Hippocrates studied the causes of illnesses and looked for causes.

Pythagoras developed a formula to measure the sides of a right triangle. Euclid wrote a book that is the basis for modern geometry.

Muslim�

Caliph: successor to Muhammad

Sharia: Islam is system of law, regulated moral behavior, family life, business, government, and other areas of community life.

Sunni: they wanted the caliph to be chosen by the Muslim leaders, and did not believe that the caliph had religious authority.

Shiite: they wanted the caliph to be a descendant of Muhammad. They believed that his descendants were divinely inspired.

Umayyad dynasty: Based in Damascus (not Mecca), the dynasty conquered a lot of land, and from this got wealthy. This also made them have the challenge of ruling large cities and territories. They relied on local officials to help govern the territory. (This let them be influences by Byzantine and Persian traditions.) They were criticized for not following the simple ways of Islam. Tensions began between the rich and the poor. Non-Arab Muslims complained that they had less rights that Arab Muslims. The Shiites also opposed the Umayyads because they had killed a descendant of Muhammad. Over time, these oppositions and stuff turned in to a rebellion.

Abbasid dynasty: Abual-Abbas captured the capital (Damascus) in 750 and then founded the Abbasid dynasty. It ruled in to the 1200s. It ended Arab domination of Islam. Under the Abbasid rulers, Islam had a golden age.

Averroes:

Renaissance�

The renaissance was a time of rebirth, innovation, and learning. Rebirth = Golden age of literature, art, and science. The Renaissance began in Italy in the mid 1500s and spread to northern Europe. The cities were centers of trade, and this made merchants rich and willing to sponsor artists. Humanism was used, thinking about worldly stuff, rather than religious. Why did it happen? It happened because people were sick of the church, the plague, and the 100 years war. Art was based on humanist ideas. Artists include Michelangelo, Leonardo da vinci, Raphael. Writers include Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare, and Machiavelli. They wrote in the vernacular instead of in Latin or Greek. Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1456, which spread ideas and literacy.

Far East�

Tang�

A golden age in China took place during the Tang dynasty. Tang tried to unite China. Tributary states=the state maintains independence but gives money to other states so they won�t destroy them. Very strong military leader. Wu, next empress, adopted Confucianism. In order to strengthen the government there was a project: building the Grand Canal, which was a canal built to join the Yangtze and yellow rivers. It employed many peasants. During the tang dynasty it was possible to move up or down in society. (Move up by taking social service exams; move down by running out of money and/or brains.) Everything during the time was nature centered (see Daoism.) Pagodas=many shrines were built, which were influenced by Buddhism.  (Get more. These are just from my Kleinman notes)

Song� smaller geographically than the Tang dynasty, but more advanced culturally and economically.

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Essay #2: Religions/Belief Systems

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Essay #3: Geography

Japan� mountains/islands. Japan is made up of a chain of mountainous islands. Because of the mountains, the land is very difficult to farm. Most of the population lives in the narrow river valleys and along the coast. The Japanese learned to use the sea as a source of food and transportation. Because of its geographical features, Japan has been protected from invaders and isolated from other nations. Its rough terrain also acts as a barrier to political unity within Japan.

Japan is known to have a lot of natural disasters, which taught the Japanese a deep respect for the forces of nature.

Middle East� oil. Middle Eastern nations gained power after the discovery of oil. Oil is very important to worldwide economy. The Middle East and Middle Eastern conflicts get a lot of attention from the other countries of the world because of their interests in oil. Many rivalries have broken out in the Middle East over control of oil-rich lands because the oil in the Middle East is not evenly distributed.

Latin America� mountains: the Latin Americans had trouble creating a unified Latin America because of the numerous geographic barriers, including the Andes Mountains.

India� India is a large, wedge shaped peninsula extending into the ocean. It is surrounded on the north and northwest by mountains. Strong winds bring monsoons (rainfalls) every summer.

The mountains cause India to be isolated from other nations. They limit India�s contact with other cultures. In India, people depended on the monsoons to grow their crops. If there was not enough rain, no one could grow crops, but didn�t want too much rain because that would cause rivers to overflow and create deadly floods.

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Essay #4: Conflicts/Wars

WWI�

Militarism: the glorification on military power. This arose among many European nations, and led to fear and suspicion because many nations were willing to use their military force to reach their national goals. One example of militarism was an arms race against Britain and Germany. They competed with each other to expand their armies and navies.

Bosnia: Serbia wanted control of Bosnia. Bosnia was controlled by Austria-Hungary, and Austria-Hungary opposed Serbian ambitions as well as feared Russian expansion. Tensions grew in the Balkans, or the �powder keg of Europe.� WWI started in the Balkans. Many Serbs lived in Bosnia, but it was ruled by Austria-Hungary. Serb nationalists believed that Bosnia belonged to Serbia.

Archduke Francis Ferdinand: the heir to the throne. On June 28, 1914, he was traveling through Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, with his wife. A member of the Slavic nationalist group, Gavrilo Princip, shot and killed the archduke and his wife. This started WWI.

1. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the Murders of the archduke and his wife and made harsh demands on Serbia.

2. Serbia refused to comply with the demands.

3. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28^th

4. Russia, a Slavic nation and a friend of Serbia, mobilized its forces in preparation for the war.

5. Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia.

6. Germany declared war on France, an ally of Russia

7. Germany invaded Belgium on August 3, 1914, so that German forces could enter France more easily

8. Britain declared war on Germany

Central Power: Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and later Bulgaria.

Allied Powers: Britain, France, Russia, Italy joined after being neutral, and the United States joined afterwards.

Trench warfare: the troops dug trenches that they fought and lived in on the western front. Many soldiers were killed, but no ground was gained by either side.

Total war: all of the resources of a nation go into the war effort

• Government drafted men to fight in the war

• Government raised taxes and borrowed money to pay for the war

• Governments rationed goods at home so that the military could be provided for

• Governments used the press to print propaganda (see below)

• Women at home took jobs that the soldiers had left behind. Some women joined the armed services; other women went to the fronts as nurses.

Propaganda: the spreading of ideas to promote a cause or to damage an opposing cause

Neutral: not supporting either side

Armistice: an agreement to end the fighting

Reparations: payments for war damage; central powers had to pay the allies.

New weapons and technology:

Automatic machine gun: mounted guns that fire a rapid, continuous stream of bullets. Made it possible for a few gunners to mow down waves of soldiers.

Tank: armored vehicle that travels on a track and can cross many kinds of land. Protected advancing troops as they broke through enemy defenses. Early tanks were slow and clumsy.

Submarine: underwater ship that can launch torpedoes, or guided underwater bombs. Used by Germany to destroy allied ships. Submarine attacks helped bring United States into the war.

Airplane: one or two seat propeller plane equipped with machine gun or bombs. At first, mainly used to observation. Later, flying �aces� engaged in air combat.

Poison gas/gas mask: gases that cause choking, blinding, or severe skin blisters; Lobbed into enemy trenches, killing or disabling troops. Gas masks can protect soldiers from poison gas. Gas masks lessened the importance of poison gas.

Major turning points:

• The entry of the United States: the U.S. tried to remain neutral in the war, but in 1917 Germany attacked any ships on the Atlantic � even ships carrying American passengers. So the U.S. joined the allies in the war.

• Russia�s withdrawal: in 1918, Russia signed a treaty with Germany and withdrew from the war.

The treaty of Versailles: The �Big Three� came up with it (based of France and England�s ideas) so that Germany would never be a threat to world power again. Germany had to give up land, including its overseas colonies, Alsace, and Lorraine (which were given to France.) Germany had to demilitarize. Their army and navy were limited and they had to take out all their troops from the Rhine land. Germany also had to take full blame for the war (The War Guilt Clause) and pay reparations, or large sums of money to pay for war damages.

The League of Nations: was made so that countries could settle problems through negotiation and peacefully, instead of by war. More than 40 countries joined and agreed to take military and economic action against any aggressor state. The United States never entered the League of Nations because they didn�t want to get involved in Europe�s problems. Because they never joined, the US weakened the League of Nations.

WWII�

Causes: Italy, Germany, and Japan took action�they wanted to build new empires. Western countries were weak and were dealing with the great depression. They did not want more war. The League of Nations was weak and could not stop them.

Japan attacked Manchuria, and when the League of Nations condemned them, they just withdrew. They then invaded the Chinese mainland. The invasion was called �The Rape of Nanjing� because of what they had done to the people of China.

Italy attacked Ethiopia, and although they try to resist the attack, Italy is too powerful. Ethiopia asks the League of Nations for help, and they agreed to stop selling weapons to Italy, but many countries did not keep their promise.

Hitler and the Nazi party were ruling Germany. Hitler glorified war and rebuilt the army, although it was going against the Treaty of Versailles. The world did nothing. In 1936 Hitler sent troops to the Rhineland. This, too, was against the Treaty of Versailles. Two years later Hitler made Austria part of his empire. He also forced Czechoslovakia to give him the Sudetenland, because many Germans lived there. Western Democracies made a �Policy of appeasement,� where nations gave up aggressive action in order to maintain peace.

Japan, Italy, and Germany form the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis. They agreed to fight communism together and to stop each other from making foreign conquests. The policy of appeasement was failing, and soon Hitler took over all of Czechoslovakia. In 1939 Hitler made a pact with Stalin agreeing not to fight each other. Soon Germany invaded Poland. England and France responded by declaring war on Germany. Thus began World War II.

Axis powers=Italy, Germany, Japan

Allies=France and Germany (later joined by the US, China, and the Soviet Union.)

Turning points of the war:

The entry of the United States in 1941: after stopping the sale of weapons to Japan, Japan got mad and attacked Pearl Harbor. (They also attacked because they wanted total control of the Pacific Ocean.) Because of this the United States declared war on Japan and gave the Allied Powers more strength.

The Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943): although Germany had a pact with Russia, they invaded in 1941. They advanced steadily until they were outside of Leningrad and Moscow, and soon decided to attack Stalingrad. Germany was forced to surrender because of the harsh winter and the strength of the Russian troops. Soon Soviet troops were advancing towards Germany.

El Alamein, 1942: British forces stopped Egypt�s advance, and he soon surrendered.

Invasion of Italy, 1943: British and American troops were sent to Italy, and Hitler was forced to send some of his troops to Italy to help fight off the allies. This weakened Hitler�s army.

Invasion of Normandy, 1944: Allies invaded France on June 6^th and broke through Germany forces to free France from German rule. They then moved in to Germany.

�On May 7^th, 1945, the Germans surrender. Japan didn�t surrender until August (after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.)

Blitz: massive bombing by warplanes (Hitler used this�this London blitz.)

Effects of WWII:

• The economy was torn. Many cities lay in mass destruction.

• The Nuremberg trials: to punish those involved in �crimes against humanity.�

• In order to prevent another world war, the allied powers occupied Japan and Germany. Western countries occupied Western Germany and Japan. They built new governments with democratic constitutions and tried to rebuild the nations. The Soviet Union occupied Eastern Germany and most of Eastern Europe. They established communist governments in these nations.

• The United Nations was formed as a place to discuss and try to find solutions to world problems. It had two parts: the general assembly, which includes representatives from every country involved, and each country has one vote, and the security council, which has 15 nations in it; 5 are permanent (The United States, England, France, China, and Russia), and 10 that rotate every 2 years.

Cold War�

Tensions and hostilities but no actual fighting between the United States and the Soviet Union. Why? Because both countries came out as superpowers and both have the economic and military means to take over the world they are competing for world domination. But both countries have different ideologies. Stalin wants to spread communism and totalitarianism, while the US wants to spread democracy and capitalism. Germany was divided between the US and the USSR. The eastern half belonged to Russia, who kept it weak to prevent the Germans attacking them, while the US rebuilt the Western half with a democratic government. It was like there was an �iron curtain� separating the 2 sides of Germany.

Containment: to stop the spread of communism (American policy in Marshall plan), and they would also give money to countries so that they wouldn�t become communist.

Berlin crisis: Stalin blockaded western Germany so that no goods or food could get through. The US airlifted cargo in to Germany in the biggest airlift ever�Stalin removes the blockade.

Germany gets divided officially in 1949 to West and East Germany, and even the capital, Berlin, is divided between east and west. Many eastern Germans tried to escape to the west side to escape communism. But then the Berlin wall is built.

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization was made to prevent soviet aggression and prevent communism. In response, the Warsaw pact was made.

Arms race: both countries built up their supply of nuclear weapons: if you bomb us, we can bomb you back.

Space race: both countries tried to be the first one to get up in space. Russians won with their satellite, Sputnik, but the US had the first man in space.

Espionage: the era of spies

�Hot spots�: Cuban missile crisis, 1962, the Soviet Union had bombs in Cuba pointed at the US.

Reducing the tensions: d�tente=relax. Wanted to ease the tensions between both superpowers. The SALT treaty was made to limit the amounts of nuclear bombs made.

Gulf War�

Iraq accuses Kuwait of drilling under the border and stealing their oil. The United States sends in troops although they thought that other countries wouldn�t get involved. Operation desert storm is sent. We get Saddam Hussein out of SA (we�re successful). He threatens to use chemical weapons.

Results of the war: Hussein has to go through inspections, we try to find nuclear or chemical weapons, and we do. Also put sanctions against his country�

Rwanda�

Civil war between the Hutus and the Tutsis led to a genocide that ended when the Hutu took control of the government.

Yugoslavia�

Ethnic cleansing led by leader Slobodan Milosevic. Genocide followed the breakup of Yugoslavia, which was held together by the Soviet Union. Milosevic wanted to prevent non-Serbs from breaking away from Yugoslavia. Soon wanted to remove and kill any other ethnic group (non-Serb) from the country.

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Essay #5: Revolutions

Neolithic revolution: otherwise known as the agricultural revolution. People used to be nomads=wanderers. They were hunters and gatherers, which means that they would hunt in one place and when that place ran out of resources they would leave. They would subsist=live on the bare minimum with the least effort and exist to live life to the fullest. Environmental changes and new climates (warmer weather) let plants grow. People learned how to domesticate animals and plant food, which made them no longer have to be nomads, or wanderers�people started living in permanent settlements. New social classes were formed (when supplies were scarce and people went to war, many people got power, including the warriors.) new technology was developed: (tools and skills): calendars, plows, the wheel, metal weapons and metal tools.

Renaissance: = rebirth = Golden age of literature, art, and science. The Renaissance began in Italy in the mid 1500s. The cities were centers of trade, and this made merchants rich and willing to sponsor artists. Humanism was used, thinking about worldly stuff, rather than religious. Why did it happen? Because people were sick of the church, the plague, and the 100 years war. Art was based on humanist ideas. Artists include Michelangelo, Leonardo da vinci, Raphael. Writers include Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare, and Machiavelli. They wrote in the vernacular instead of in Latin or Greek. Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1456, which spread ideas and literacy�led to�

Protestant reformation: (protest done with words, leading to an active change) ABUSES, CORRUPTION, EXCESS�Was spread by the printing press, and came about from humanism ideas and the renaissance, strong monarchs, and problems and corruption in the church. People would sell indulgences for money, rather than confessing their sins and doing what they had to do to be absolved. The church used the money from the tariffs for themselves, not to better the church. Martin Luther came and wrote his 95 theses (arguments against indulgences) in 1517 and posted them on the door of the church. This made people break away from the Catholic Church and form new Christian churches. John Calvin and Martin Luther both believed that Christians could only reach heaven through faith in god. But they had some differences: Luther believed that the pope can�t pardon sins and that the bible was the only source of religious truth, while Calvin believed in predestination, or that everything that will happen in one�s life is determined when his or her soul is created, theocracy, or state being run by religion. He also believed in original sin, which means that a baby is not born innocent; he has the original sin of Adam and Eve in him. In order to make it up the baby has to live. He also believed that life is made for hard work. Luther�s followers are called Lutherans or Protestants. The effects of the protestant reformation were political and religious divisions, religious conflicts, anti Semitism, and witch hunts.

Scientific revolution: New ways of solving problems and thinking about the world. Came to define modern thought. Copernicus: universe is heliocentric (revolves around the sun). Galileo invented the telescope. Newton discovered gravity. The scientific method was formed=relied on experiment, not authorities. Descartes emphasized the power of human reason.

Enlightenment: thinkers=Locke �if there is no government then anarchy will start.� Rousseau �freedom, liberty=to be able to make laws for yourself and obey them,� Voltaire, �you can think and say whatever you want=liberty,� Montesquieu, �you can do whatever the law permits.� Hobbes, �there used to be anarchy and then government stopped that.� Why now? Why in the 18^th century? �If the laws of nature can govern the physical would, then why can�t we use reason, too? Enlightened despots were absolute rulers who used their power to make reforms in society. The �Encyclopedie� spread it.

Commercial Revolution: =the business revolution, rise of capitalism. Banks and insurance helped businesses. Partnerships and joint companies were formed. People borrowed money from bank lenders. This led to the decline of feudalism because serfs started selling their farm products and paying their lords with money instead of labor. This led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Capitalism=individual owns and operates the means of production, I am free to enter any business I want to, you go in to business because you want to make a profit. Competition brings lowere prices and better quality. Supply and demand also regulates the price. (Invisible hand controls the market, gets things produced)

Industrial Revolution: caused by the agrarian (agricultural) revolution. �The enclosure movement led to lots of people moving to the cities, the seed drill (Jethro Tull) being invented made planting faster, and made less people have to work on the farms, so even more people moved to the city. Urbanization is when lots of people move to the city) population explosion led to a need for more resources. �Necessity is the mother of all inventions.� Flying shuttle (John Kay)�spinning jenny (James Hargreaves)/water frame (Richard Arkwright)/spinning mule (Samuel Crompton)�water powered loom (Edmund Cartwright)�cotton gin (Eli Whitney)�Why Great Britain? Because they have the coal and iron ore=factors of production, they have harbors, which are good for trade and a source of energy, they have peace, they have money (capital, wealthy people willing to invest), the government assists them, and they have labor. � Lots of impacts. Major population increase in the cities. Lots of pollution from the factories in the cities, people lived in tenements. But the standard of living did go up. But the conditions of the factories were horrible. Dirty, unsafe. Kids and women were preferred because you�d have to pay them less (no experience). They were exploited.

French Revolution: ideas from the enlightenment and the American Revolution, political, social, and economic factors bring forth the revolution. The 3^rd estate paid all the taxes. They were 98% of the people but owned only 70% of the land. The government was spending more than they had. National assembly, tennis court oath, On July 14^th, 1789 the peasants stormed the Bastille. The great fear=the peasants looted all the nobles� houses. Made a new constitution in 1791. When news of the revolution spread foreign monarchs got scared that the same thing would happen to their countries. French monarchs were killed. Reign of terror, Robespierre (ended when he was killed), and in N Bonaparte. He overthrew the weak 5-man directory (provisional government in France) in a coup detat. He declared himself emperor of France and encouraged nationalism.

Bolshevik Revolution: Lenin-peace bread and land. Followed the ideas of Karl Marx but instead of the workers rising and overthrowing the capitalist system, he decided that the new group he formed, the Bolsheviks, would overthrow the system. He promised peace bread and land and the end to Russia�s involvement in the war. (Land reform and end of food shortages)

Chinese revolution: Mao Zedong 

Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and his army overthrew the government in Cuba in 1959. He�s stupid so he turned Cuba in to a communist state and turned to the USSR for support.

Iranian Revolution: Ayatollah Khimen overthrows the Shah and sets up Islamic fundamentalism in Iran. He was totally against westernization (that�s why he hated the shah) the chador was the symbol of the revolution. Chador=veil that women wear, totally covers their faces.

Green Revolution: �s goal was to increase the food supply. How? Irrigation=farmers installed pumps to being water from below the surface of the earth and used other irrigation systems to distribute the water. Machinery=farmers used machines (powered by diesel fuel and gasoline) to increase yields from their land. Fertilizer and pesticides=farmers enriched their soil with fertilizer and kept away bugs with pesticides. Scientists bred new, hardier, grains and livestock that could produce more meat and milk. This helped in developing countries, where they used it for wheat and rice. Food production even doubled in some cases (India and Indonesia)

New kinds of rice and corn and grain were made that was far more productive than other varieties. At first they succeeded, but soon discovered that they were damaging the environment. Insecticides killed bugs, which was their goal, but also killed birds and animals that ate the bugs.

It did not work well in many parts of Africa because of poor soil conditions. In fact, attempts to increase crop yield weakened the soil further and helped �desertification,� which had a terrible effect on the economies of several African nations (see world and global issues)

Russian Revolution II: Gorbachev, although he didn�t intend to, started to put an end to communism by instituting new policies called glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reconstructing). Boris Yeltsin became the first elected leader of Russia, ending communism.

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Essay #6: Imperialism/Nationalism

Imperialism: domination of one country of the political, economic or cultural life of another country or region.

Colony: and area where a foreign nation gained total control over the area and the people.

Protectorate: a colony that even though a nation took it over, the ruler that ruled before they took it over is still considered the ruler.

Sphere of Influence: a region in which one nation has special economic and political privileges that are accepted and recognized by other nations.

There were 2 ways to control conquered nations

Indirect rule:

• Local government officials were used.

• Limited self-rule

• Goal: to develop future leaders

• Government are based on European styles but have local rulers

• Britain favored this, but it eventually went against them.

Direct rule:

• Foreign officials were brought in to rule.

• No self-rule.

• Goal: impose European culture and assimilate the natives.

• Government institutions are based only on European styles.

• France used this (and because of that all their conquered nations knew French and stuff)

Motives for imperialism:

• Advances in weaponry: Maxim gun allowed them to conquer more places.

• Whoever doesn�t take place in it will be pitiable (Germany, who started late, said that they missed out)

• Social Darwinism, the belief that your nation is the best and has the means to survive.

• White man�s burden, to spread Christianity.

Africa� the Portuguese in 1400s explored the coasts of Africa, but they did not penetrate beyond. The Europeans went to Africa in the 1800s. They were encouraged by needs for natural resources, labor and rivalry for power and prestige. When the Europeans came, they separated African tribes by making artificial boundaries. Some tribes would learn different languages (English or French�). As well as tribes being separated, enemy tribes were forced to live together. This caused tribalism (when you are more loyal to your tribe than to your country) and when the Europeans leave, tribes will start killing other tribes (Rwanda).

Leopold and the free Congo state (that wasn�t free and wasn�t a state)-forced Africans to work for him. Wanted them to collect rubber. Very high demands. If they didn�t meet the demands, he would kill them.

In 1885, 14 leaders of European nations had a conference in Berlin. They set up rules for colonizing Africa to keep the powers from going to war.  (*African rulers were not invited-shows that they had no rights.)

India� �India is the brightest jewel in the British crown.� (�The sun never sets in the British empire� = it was so big and so powerful-since there was so much territory, it was never night in every single colony�or that it will never die. It is always and always will be powerful) The British got a lot of profits from India. Indigo, jute, cotton, spices, tea, opium.

East India company: started a war against India and won. A company was ruled by private people. The purpose was to make money.

1. British east India company

A. Mid 1800s

�         Controlled about 3/5 of India

�         Exploited the diversity of India

�         Hired local Hindu and Muslim soldiers known as �sepoys� and made them their army to fight for the country.

B. Purpose

�         Make money

1.      Imported tea

2.      Improved roads, preserved peace and reduced theft

3.      Introduced western education and legal procedures. (Not everyone was happy about this) (English moved to India because it was very nice. They lived like kings)

�         Tried to �civilize� India-christianize them, stop them from being superstitious and worshipping idols

            C. Growing discontent

1.      1850s unpopular moves

�         Sepoys were forced to serve overseas (against their religion)

�         Missionaries tried to convert natives

�         Outlawed suttee (custom: burning a widow alive on her husband�s tomb � thought of as barbaric)

�         Allowed Hindu widows to remarry (against religion)

Some Indians rebelled against the English. Asamulkan: he was an Indian Muslim who was taught by the English. He went to England and expected to see everyone living really well because they were so rich and powerful in India. He was wrong. They were living in the streets. Poor conditions.

The Indians wanted to rebel against the British.

A rumor that there was animal fat (cow-sacred to Hindus or pig-against Muslim religion to eat) on rifle cartridge (had to bite the cartridge in order to load the gun � against religion to eat those animals) was an excuse for them to rebel.

Sepoy mutiny: Sepoys revolt against East India Company. Known as the war of independence for the Hindus.

The British government defeated the sepoys. Instead of the company ruling India, the British government did. Now India is part of the British Empire.

Impacts of British imperialism in India:

China� china was isolating itself. China thought itself as �the middle kingdom�. They thought that they were the best (ethnocentrism). China was trading with the British, but the British had trade deficit (they were getting more than they were exporting) and China had trade surplus (exporting more than importing). Because of this, the British started to smuggle opium (an illegal drug) from India to China. The Chinese are against this, but they are addicted to the opium. The Chinese are mad the British are selling them opium because it is illegal in Britain. Why should they sell it to China? The British blame the Chinese. They don�t have to buy it if they don�t want to. That it the only way to stop.

The empress�s daughter ODs on opium so the empress burns $1 million worth of opium that the British are storing in China. The British are so mad. They declare war (the opium war) and China is defeated.

The treaty of Nanjing (the unequal treaty) 1842

Chinese had to give up 4 ports

Had to pay for war damages

Had to give Hong Kong to Britain for 99 years

Had to give British extraterritoriality (if British committed a crime in China, they could be tried in a British court)

Couldn�t charge more than 5% trade tax

 �Other countries start taking advantage of China once they see what England did. Other countries try to convert the Chinese so that they could make them allies. They �gobble up� china in to spheres of influence. (An area where a country has exclusive trading rights) America proposes an �open door policy,� = free trade for everyone throughout China. They don�t want China to be eaten up. This was good for china because it stopped it from being colonies. It was good for every other country because now they can trade freely throughout china.

Latin America�

The people of Latin America were colonized by Spain and Portugal.

• Peninsulares were born in Spain and Portugal.

• Creoles were born in Latin America to European parents.

Peninsulares and Creoles lived on Haciendas=large farming estates. They had the most wealth and power. They abused the slaves.

• Mestizos were half Indian and half white. Mulattoes were half black and half white. They were next on the pyramid.

• Native Latin Americans

• Slaves (blacks)

The Europeans colonized (used imperialism there and stuff) Latin America because they wanted the natural resources in there.

Nationalism:

Zionism: the movement devoted to forming a Jewish state in Palestine. It began because of the intense hatred and anti-Semitism against the Jews.

Italy: ever since the fall of the Roman Empire, Italy had been divided in to many small states. After Napoleon invaded Italy, he united some of the Italian states in to the Kingdom of Italy. The Congress of Vienna re-divided Italy. Italy was hard to unify because of all the different states.

Germany: after Napoleon�s conquests, Germans felt that they wanted to be free on French rule. After Napoleon�s defeat in 1815, some nationalists called for the unifying of Germany. Otto von Bismarck wanted to unify Germany. He was appointed the chancellor of Prussia and was going to unify Germany though �blood and iron,� or war. He did not believe in speeches or representative government, and believed that the only way to unify the country was through war. He led Prussia in to 3 wars (Danish War, Austro-Prussian War, and Franco-Prussian War,) all of which unified Germany more and more.

He did not want to Unite Germany because of nationalism, though, he wanted to unify it to make the Prussian king the ruler of a strong and unified German state.

India: Because the British had ruled them, nationalistic feelings began to stir among the Indians, especially those who had been educated in the west and learned about democracy and natural rights, and called for increasing self-rule. In 1885 they formed the Indian National Congress, a group made up of Hindu professionals and business leaders. At first they only asked for an equal opportunity to serve in the Indian government. They called for greater democracy and western modernization, looking in to the future for self-rule. At first, the Muslims cooperated in the campaign, but soon the Muslims started becoming distrustful because the organization was mostly Hindu. In 1906 they formed the Muslim League in order to protect their own rights and interests, and even talked about making a separate Muslim state. After WWI, the wanting for Indian self-rule increased, and in 1947 the goal was finally achieved.

Turkey: in the 1890s a group called the Young Turk wanted to strengthen the Ottoman Empire and end the threat of western imperialism. In 1908 they overthrew the sultan and took over the government. The Armenian massacre: the Young Turks supported nationalism, but they ignored the traditional Ottoman tolerance of other religions. Muslim Turks went against the Christian Armenians who were living in the Ottoman Empire and accused them of plotting with Russia against them. They started a massacre that resulted in the death of over a million Armenians over the next 25 years.

The Balkans: Pan-Slavism�the �Powder Keg of Europe�

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Essay #7: World Leaders/Individuals

Mohandas Gandhi� India. He headed the Indian nationalist movement. He taught non-violent resistance and civil disobedience (refusal to obey unjust laws). He taught people to boycott British goods. Gandhi rejected the caste system � especially the terrible treatment of the untouchables. In 1950 the constitution banned discrimination against the untouchables. The government set aside jobs and places in universities for the untouchables. Gandhi encouraged western ideas such as democracy and nationalism. He urged equal rights for everyone, even women.

Adolf Hitler � Germany. Promised Germany that he could provide people with jobs and rebuild German pride after WWI. He started the National Socialist German Workers, or Nazi party. He believed that Germans were a superior race who was destined to build a new empire. Hitler was a dictator. Under Hitler, Germany, which he called the third Reich, was a totalitarian state. He put everything under government control and began to employ many people. He rearmed Germany, going against the treaty of Versailles, and raised the standard of living in Germany. Hitler used propaganda in education and the arts. He tried to drive Jews and other minorities out of Germany. He blamed them for everything that was wrong. Many people were happy about this, because they saw it as restoring German pride.

 Joseph Stalin� was the ruler of Russia around the time of WWII. He was an evil totalitarian dictator and killed about 40-60 million people because he was afraid that they were against him and his political ideas. He wanted to spread communism. He also wanted to keep Germany split so that they couldn't attack Russia and (after ww2)...Stalin came to power after Lenin died in 1924. He wanted a revolution to start in Russia, while this other guy Trotsky wanted a worldwide revolution. Stalin overthrew him and took over the country. He wanted to industrialize the country and catch up with the western nations. To reach his goal he set up a "5 year plan"...which meant that he was going to put all the peasants in collective farms and sell all the surplus food to get money for industry. (Called a command economy) and he wouldn't care about the quality of the goods. He had a "cult of personality." He had the "great purge" where he "cleaned out" all the people who he thought would try to take him over. In this great purge he got rid of everyone who was for Trotsky and Lenin. His secret police was the KGB. He also stressed atheism because he wanted everyone to worship him.

 Nelson Mandela � Africa. An important ANC (African National Congress) leader. Strongly opposed the Apartheid and launched boycotts and nonviolent civil disobediences. The government jailed him in 1964 and he became a symbol for the struggle for freedom. He was freed 27 years later by president F.W. Deklerk and elected president in 1994.

Mao Zedong � China. In the 1930s he emerged as the leader of the communists. Mao won the support of the huge peasant population of China by promising land the peasants. He won the support of women by rejecting the inequalities of traditional Confucian society. Mao�s army made good use of hit and run guerilla warfare. Many people followed Mao because they opposed the nationalist government, which they saw as corrupt. Some people felt that the nationalists had allowed foreigners to dominate china.

Mao wanted to make China into a modern industrial nation. Under communism, literacy increased, old landlord and business classes were eliminated and rural Chinese were provided with health care. Although all of this was good, Mao also set up a one party dictatorship and denied people of many rights and freedoms.

In 1958 Mao launched �the great leap forward�. He wanted to increase agricultural and industrial output. He created large collective farms called communes. His plan failed and famine was spread throughout China.

In 1966, Mao launched the �cultural revolution�. He wanted to renew people�s loyalty to communism. Mao felt that revolutionary peasants and workers were being replaced by intellectuals in running the country. He shut down schools urged Chinese students to experience the revolution for themselves. In response, the students formed the �red guards�, a group of fighters who attacked professors, government officials, and factory managers. Many of the students were exiled and executed.

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Essay #8: Women�s Issues

Afghanistan� in 1978, a repressive Marxist group, the people�s democratic party of Afghanistan (POPA), took over the government to prevent Afghani revolt. Although they were repressive, they allowed women to go to school and work. In 1995 and 1996 Islamic fundamentalists called the Taliban captured two important cities. Although not recognized as the ruling class, they governed Afghanistan. They were much more repressive. They did not let women outside without a male escort and made no exceptions for women without male relatives. Many women were reduced to misery and starvation.

Saudi Arabia� in most Muslim countries women are not equal to men. For example, they can�t get a divorce or travel without permission, they can�t go outside without wearing a chador (a long garment or veil that covers the whole body), women can�t drive cars, and they often not allowed to go into the street without a male escort. However, in Saudi Arabia, women can work alongside other women. Teachers can only teach women and doctors can only treat female patients. When demand for oil in Saudi Arabia fell, the economy in Saudi Arabia also fell and women were encouraged to work. Liberals hoped that women would become so necessary to the economy that they would be paid more, be integrated into the work force and enter fields only appropriate for men. In 1996 women owned at least 40% of Saudi Arabia�s private wealth.

Japan� the status of women in Japan is changing. Before WWII, women were thought of as inferior to men. Most marriages were arranged. Women could not work in industries or the professions. They could not vote and were limited to wearing traditional style dresses. Universities were mostly for men. As Japan became a more democratic nation after WWII, the status of women began to change. The got the right to vote, they began to work outside the house as industrial workers and professionals, they married who they wanted to marry, and they were now admitted into universities. Such changes have given women more freedom and allowed women to help Japan�s economy. For the first time in 1993, a woman has been chosen to preside over the Japanese Diet.

                  �  In 1918 in Britain, women won the right to vote [suffrage]

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Essay #9: Human Rights

Rwanda: see conflicts and wars, essay #4

Yugoslavia: see conflicts and wars, essay #4

 Slave trade (1500s):

(Also called the triangular trade because the sea route involving Europe, Africa, and America formed a large triangle.

Causes of the slave trade: African slaves were thought to be the most valuable African trade good. Europeans started buying many Africans to fill the spots in the plantations, or large estates, in the Americas.

The Middle Passage was the route from Africa to the Americas. On the ships the conditions were terrible. Hundreds of Africans were crammed in to one ship, and many died on the journey from disease, brutal mistreatment, and some even from suicide. The ones who survived were forced to work on plantations in the Americas.

Effects of the slave trade:

About 11 million Africans had been sent to the Americas by the end of the slave trade (1800s). It caused wars to break out in Africa and as a result, African political structures were undermined. Through slavery, many African societies were deprived of intelligent minds, talented, and strong people. West Africa lost many people. Some states disappeared completely, while others formed that were dependent on the slave trade. 

Caste system (India):

The caste system is a system of social stratification, or splitting up in to different classes. The untouchables, the people on the bottom of the caste system, have no rights. They are separated from the higher classes and have the jobs that no one else would do because it is impure/profane work. Even though the bad treatment of employees was banned, a woman�s employers, the government, still mistreat her. They won�t talk to her or give her water. (Although Gandhi was against discrimination against the untouchables, it still goes on today.)

India is a dichotomy, which means that it has two major extremes.

Very wealthy�� � the population earns $1 a day.

Largest democracy �� caste system discrimination

Religious toleration �� Hindu - Muslim conflict

High tech industry �� high rate of illiteracy

 Apartheid (South Africa): =legal segregation

Under apartheid

�         no intermarriage

�         blacks had low paying jobs

�         blacks had to live apart

�         blacks had travel restrictions

�         blacks had to carry identification cards (�passbook law�)

�         blacks had separate schools

�         blacks had no voting rights

What was the purpose of apartheid?

�         To maintain the minority, white, rule

�         To keep races from associating with one another

�         To maintain control of economic wealth

The ANC (African National Congress) tried to stop this peacefully, but the government soon banned them. The organization continued to work in secret, and became more violent. Mandela was thrown in jail�what did the world do to stop the segregation?

They put economic sanctions on South Africa and made �divestments� =they took out all their investments in South Africa. In 1990 he was released by President F.W. De Klerk, who also lifts the ban on ANC and ends Apartheid. Mandela became the first black South African president (when blacks got the right to vote in 1994, they all voted for him, as well as did voters of other races.) Mandela made reforms and got rid of Apartheid laws.

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Essay #10: Environmental Concerns

Desertification: is the changeover from arable land to desert. This happens because of overgrazing of livestock and cattle and the cutting down of forests. Solutions to desertification are to prevent the overgrazing of livestock in one area, and planting new trees (as a barrier against erosion.)

Endangered species: is related to deforestation, because many of the animals and plants that live in those forests are beings killed, and therefore the population is getting less and less. Also clearing land, building dams, and pollutions threaten the survival of many animals. If species are lost, then the ecosystem of the world can be balanced severely. Also, resources that people use for food and medicine might disappear. Solutions to the problem are that the banning of shipment and sale of endangered animals, and preservation their habitats.

Deforestation: is the destruction of forests, especially tropical rain forests. It is usually caused by nations that are developing, and need the lumber, or the land to raise crops, graze cattle, or build homes. It is estimated that the world loser 50 million acres of forest every year. Effects of deforestation are changes of global weather, and buildup of carbon dioxide in the air, soil erosion, and extinction of plants and animals.

Pollution: =the contamination of the environment (air, water, and soil.) It is harmful to many living things, and is caused by factories and cars releasing gasses and soot. Pollution can lead to respiratory disease, cancers, and death. Acid rain is when rain that is polluted by fossil fuels, the burning of iron, coal and natural gases, falls. It damages farms and lakes, and can be carried by the wind. Depletion of the ozone layer is another global problem. The ozone layer is a layer of gasses that blocks the sun�s ultraviolet rays. The ozone layer is becoming thinner because of chemical pollutants. The UV rays can lead to skin cancer and eye disease, as well as damage crops and marine life. Global warming, a rise in global temperature, is another concern. It is caused by the greenhouse effect, which is when warm air gets trapped in the lower atmosphere. Possible causes are the burning of fossil fuels and CFCs and the destruction of forests. Some people disagree and say that global warming is just the change in natural temperature, and is natural to happen over a long period of time. But others think that it can affect agriculture and result in flooding because of the melting of polar ice caps.

Nuclear proliferation: is the spread of nuclear weapons and energy. [Chernobyl nuclear power plant�accident in 1986 in Soviet Union.] Nuclear waste and disposal is a problem because it is radioactive for a long amount of time. High levels of radioactivity can be harmful to people if they are exposed to it for a long time. People used to dump their nuclear waste in oceans or bury it deep behind walls, but these methods were dangerous, and were banned. Effective cleanup is expensive, though. Nuclear weapons are bad and can kill a lot of people. In the end of the 1900s Russia and the US owned most of the world�s nuclear weapons. Although the tensions between Russia and the US decreased, there is still a threat of nuclear war. India and Pakistan�s dispute could end in nuclear war, and Iraq and North Korea are trying to build nuclear bombs. Another danger is that a terrorist group might gain access to a nuclear bomb.

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Essay #11: Global Problems

Terrorism: the deliberate use of unpredictable violence, especially against civilians, to gain revenge or achieve political goals. Groups who do not have their own military power usually use terrorism. Terrorists usually use bombs, kidnappings, assassinations, and hijackings. Recently new fears have come about nuclear and chemical terrorism have developed. Some of the most common uses of terrorism are:

• In disputes between national groups about homelands (Israel)

• In conflicts between religious groups (northern Ireland)

• In domestic conflicts between ethnic groups or between revolutionary groups and established governments (Indonesia, India, and Sri Lanka)

Terrorism is hard to control because it is random, but some efforts have been made to stop terrorism:

• Increased airport security

• Governments routinely sharing information about terrorists through Interpol

• More nations are condemning terrorists.

Overpopulation: an overabundance of people in a given country or region that lacks sufficient resources for them.

Overpopulation is caused by: religious beliefs some religions think that it is essential to bring children in to the world. Cultural factors some cultures promote the idea that it is necessary to have large families to carry on the family name and provide for parents in their old age. Economic factors some people feel that large numbers of children are necessary to help support the family economically. Lack of knowledge many people lack factual information about reproduction and birth control.

Efforts to stop overpopulation: �family planning:� the governments of some countries sponsor birth control programs. E.g. China provides birth control information and financial incentives to couples that limit their offspring to one child.

Famine: lots of people being hungry, it is bad because people die from hunger. In order to solve the problem, the green revolution started. Farmers and scientists worked to increase the food production. (To learn more, see green revolutions under essay #5)

Nuclear Proliferation: the spread of nuclear weapons, see environmental concerns, essay #10)

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Essay #12: World Organizations

Hamas--an Arabic acronym for Islamic Resistance Movement meaning "zeal"--was created in Gaza by Sheikh Ahmad Yassin shortly before the intifada as a more militant, Palestinian offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood, a religious, political and social movement founded in Egypt and dedicated to the gradual victory of Islam. Since the mid 1970s, the Brotherhood has been expanding its influence in the territories through its vast array of social services. Hamas rendered the Brotherhood's policy of gradual Islamicization ineffectual and advocated an immediate holy war to liberate Palestine.

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Founded in 1964 by the Arab League, the PLO was the invention of Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser. Nasser saw it as a means to advance Egypt's goals of uniting the Arab world under Egyptian rule, by rallying the Arab states under the banner of destroying Israel.

Since 1969, Chairman Yasser Arafat and his terrorist group, Fatah, have run the PLO.

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was made so that oil-exporting countries could control the price and production of oil.

Organization of African Unity (OAU) In order to strengthen the continent of Africa and to make it less vulnerable to outside influence, President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana strongly believed that the continent should be united. Thus, in the late 1950s, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah started a movement, which stressed the immediate unity of the African continent.

�               April 30, 1948 - 21 countries of the hemisphere met in Bogot�, Colombia, to adopt the Charter of the Organization of American States (OAS), which affirmed their commitment to common goals and respect for each nation�s sovereignty. Since then, the OAS has expanded to include the nations of the Caribbean, as well as Canada.

IRA = Irish Republican Army

Fought for Irish Idependence against the British.

ANC = African national congress, the majority party in South Africa's Government

The ANC is a national liberation movement. It was formed in 1912 to unite the African people and spearhead the struggle for fundamental political, social and economic change.

 For nine decades the ANC has led the struggle against racism and oppression, organizing mass resistance, mobilizing the international community and taking up the armed struggle against apartheid.

The ANC achieved a decisive democratic breakthrough in the 1994 elections, where it was given a firm mandate to negotiate a new democratic Constitution for South Africa. The new Constitution was adopted in 1996.

The ANC was re-elected in 1999 to national and provincial government with an increased mandate.

The policies of the ANC are determined by its membership and its leadership is accountable to the membership.

Membership of the ANC is open to all South Africans above the age of 18 years, irrespective of race, color and creed, who accept its principles, policies and programs.

Aims and Objectives

The ANC's key objective is the creation of a united, non-racial, non-sexist and democratic society.

This means the liberation of Africans in particular and black people in general from political and economic bondage. It means uplifting the quality of life of all South Africans, especially the poor.

The struggle to achieve this objective is called the National Democratic Revolution.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was formed to stop communist aggression during the Cold War and is still around today.

UN the United Nations (see the effects of WWII)

European integration has delivered half a century of stability, peace and economic prosperity.  It has helped to raise standards of living, built an internal market, launched the euro and strengthened the Union's voice in the world.

The European Union (EU) was set up after the 2nd World War. The process of European integration was launched on 9 May 1950 when France officially proposed to create 'the first concrete foundation of a European federation'. Six countries (Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) joined from the very beginning. Today, after four waves of accessions (1973: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom; 1981: Greece; 1986: Spain and Portugal; 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden) the EU has 15 Member States and is preparing for the accession of 13 eastern and southern European countries.

The European Union is based on the rule of law and democracy. It is neither a new State replacing existing ones nor is it comparable to other international organizations. Its Member States delegate sovereignty to common institutions representing the interests of the Union as a whole on questions of joint interest. All decisions and procedures are derived from the basic treaties ratified by the Member States.

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Essay #13: Governments [Political Systems]

Democracy=a kind of government where the people make decisions. Greece (under Sparta,) unites states, Japan post WWII, present-day India (the largest democracy), and Argentina.

Feudalism= a system of government in which local lords control their own land but owe military service and other support to a greater lord. Zhou dynasty (china), medieval society, Japan (1100s), pre-Bolshevik Russia.

Divine right= king is the agent of god. His authority to rule comes from god. Ancient Chinese dynasties

Absolutism= autocratic rulers had complete authority over the government and the lives of the people in their nation. Mongol (Russia), Moghals (India), Spain (1500s Philip II, Henry IV), France (1600s), Russia (1400s-Ivan the great, Ivan the terrible, Peter)

Totalitarian=a form of government in which one-party dictatorship attempts to regulate every aspect of the lives of citizens. Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin.

Parliamentary=a system of government having the real executive power vested in a cabinet composed of members of the legislature who are individually and collectively responsible to the legislature. I don�t know any examples.

Theocracy=a system of government in which power is held by religion. Iran (after the revolution), Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan

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Essay #14: Culture [Family Arrangements/Arts]

This is a bad essay topic and it better not be on the regent because it�s stupid. We couldn�t even find two examples of it. If you have any you can add them in. thanks.

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Essay #15: Technology/Inventions

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Essay #16: Developing �Third World� Countries [Problems]

Developing nations = nations whose economies are more agricultural than industrial and whose living standards are relatively low. They are �have-not� nations.

Famine: Hunger and famine in developing nations is more common and widespread than hunger in developed nations.

In East Africa there was a drought in the 1980s and early 1990s that lead to famine.

In Ethiopia, a lack of rainfall caused crops to fail and herds of animals to die. In 2 years (1984-1985) one million people are estimated to have died.

Developed nations try to send food to groups in developing nations, but sometimes much of the food doesn�t reach the developing nations because of conflict and corruption.

Causes: environmental problems, such as droughts, and political problems, such as civil wars and corruption, as well as economic problems, like unemployment and lowing paying jobs, that make people not be able to buy food for their families (especially when the prices of food go up.)

Solutions: green revolution (see revolutions, essay #5)

Debt: third world countries depended on loans to finance industrial projects. They got loans from developed nations, foreign banks, and international organizations. Now they don�t have the money to pay back the loans and are highly in debt. They think that it�s okay that they can�t pay them back because them being developed helps the rest of the world. Because of this the United States lowered the interest rates.

Urbanization = the movement of people from rural to urban areas. Why urbanize? (1) Large families in rural villages realize that there is not enough work or food to support all family members, so they move to the city in order to find work that will support the whole family. (2) To escape a famine or violent conflict.

The conditions of living are very poor. The houses are small and made of old material. They also lack proper sanitation facilities, which help diseases spread. The newcomers of the city become desperate and resort to begging, stealing, and drug use.

Education: High rates of illiteracy (people who don�t know what that means should fail � not only the regents, but everything, because they are stupid.) literacy has been rising, but in the age of computers people should know more than just how to read. As countries develop, their countries have a growing need for highly educated workers.  Since they have limited finds to build and staff schools, developing nations cannot afford to get large numbers of students through high school. The very few educated students go abroad to university, and then decide to stay there. The nations then lose the brains and knowledge of their best-educated young people. (Brain-drain)

Overpopulation: in most nations of the world the population is growing, but the population of developing nations is much more than that of developed nations. Why is this so? Because population occurs when the birth rate is higher than the death rate. In both developed in developing nations the death rate has been declining. In developed nations the birth rate, too, has declined because of birth control, adoption, and marrying when older. But in developing nations, the birth rate is as high as ever. (Africa�s population grows 3.2% a year.)

High birth rates because parents think that having lots of children is good because they have a better chance to contribute their labor to the family. Also, methods of birth control are not always taught or encouraged in traditional cultures. (Hunger and illiteracy are linked to the problem of overpopulation � natural resources are not available to meet the population�s needs.)

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Essay #17: global economic systems/policies

Communism: an economic system in which the workers own and operate the means of production. (Soviet Union, China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam)

Capitalism: economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit. (Smart people like the US)

Manorialism: an economic system structured around a lord�s manor, or estate. (Used during feudalism)

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Essay #18: cultural diffusion

The exchange of ideas, customs and goods among cultures.

Crusades� religious wars. The Seljuk Turks, who were Muslims, invaded the Byzantine Empire and conquered Palestine in 1050s. The Christian church called for a movement to drive the Muslims out or Palestine. For about 200 years, they fought in a series of crusades. Although the Christians failed to conquer Palestine, the crusades had some different effects. Among other things, Europeans learned from the cultural achievements of Islam. Europeans were exposed to the advances that other cultures made in math, science, literature and art and the pride that they took in learning. They Europeans gained a broader outlook and were exposed to new ideas.

Imperialism � when nations took over other places, they imposed their ideas on the conquered nations. The conquered nations also gave ideas to the imperialists (I made up a word). That is cultural diffusion. For example, France imposed their language on conquered nations, and still now in Canada they speak French.

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